500 MB Nyheder Direkte fra Internet 2/500 MB nyheder direkte fra internet CD 2.iso/start/data/text/dos.txt

Text File | 1994-09-21 | 239KB | 4,574 lines

            GET INTO DOS
  The typical business uses IBM PC clones, because they cost
little and run the best business software. (For example, the
typical IBM PC clone costs half as much as the typical Mac, and
the IBM PC versions of database programs are better than the Mac
versions.)
  The first software to get for an IBM PC or clone is the disk
operating system (DOS). It teaches the computer how to handle
disk drives. The most popular DOS for the IBM PC and clones was
invented by a company called MicroSoft, which worked together
with IBM to invent MicroSoft DOS, also called MS-DOS.
  MS-DOS comes on a pile of floppy disks, which must be fed into
the computer before you use any other disks. If you buy a
computer with a hard disk, your dealer's probably fed the MS-DOS
floppies into the computer and copied their info onto the hard
disk, so you don't need the floppies anymore.

           Versions of DOS
  MS-DOS comes in many versions. Versions for the IBM PC are
called PC-DOS. Versions for clones built by Compaq are called
Compaq DOS.
  Make sure you get the MS-DOS version that's intended for your
computer. Get it from the dealer who sold you the computer.
  If you use the wrong version of DOS ___ for example, if you try
to use PC-DOS on a Compaq computer, or try to use Compaq DOS on a
different brand of clone ___ the computer will gripe (especially
when you try writing programs in BASIC) or will give you the
wrong time or will handle your disk drives too slowly or do
something else weird. You don't need those hassles, so get the
right version of DOS!
  MS-DOS has been improving. For example, let's look at how
Microsoft and IBM have gradually improved PC-DOS (which is the
IBM PC version of MS-DOS).
  The original version of PC-DOS was called version 1. Then came
an improvement called version 1.1. Then came versions 2, 2.1, 3,
3.1, 3.2, and 3.3.
  Version 1 handled just the original IBM PC and its 5¼-inch
floppy disks. That version wrote on just one side of each disk
and put 8 sectors on each track, so that each disk held 160K.
Version 1.1 could write on both sides of each disk, so that each
disk held 320K.
  Version 2 could also handle the IBM PC XT and its 10-megabyte
hard disk. That version also squeezed more data onto each floppy
disk: onto each track, it put 9 sectors instead of 8, so the
floppy disk held 360K instead of 320K. Version 2.1 could also
handle the IBM PC Junior.
  Version 3 could also handle the IBM PC AT, its 20-megabyte and
30-megabyte hard disks, and its high-density 5¼-inch floppy disks
(which held 1.2 megabytes instead of 360K). Version 3.1 could
also handle networks. Version 3.2 could also handle the IBM PC
Convertible and its 3½-inch 720K floppies. Version 3.3 could also
handle the IBM PS/2 and its 3½-inch 1.44 megabyte floppies.
  Other early versions of MS-DOS (such as Compaq DOS) were
numbered similarly to PC-DOS. For example, Compaq
DOS version 3.31 resembled PC-DOS version 3.3 but let you more
easily handle hard disks bigger than 30 megabytes.
                                         In July 1988, Microsoft
and IBM began selling version 4. Like Compaq DOS version 3.31, it
let you handle huge hard disks easily. But alas, version 4
consumed too much RAM and was incompatible with some older
programs.
                                         In June 1991, Microsoft
and IBM began selling version 5, which fixed DOS 4's problems and
included many exciting new commands. In 1993 they began selling
version 6, which was even fancier.
                                         Afterwards, Microsoft
and IBM parted company and decided to compete against each other.
IBM invented and sold version 6.1, without any involvement from
Microsoft. Then Microsoft decided to fight back by inventing and
selling version 6.2. Then IBM retaliated with version 6.3.
                                         Headaches Some DOS
versions give you headaches.
                                         Versions 1.0 and 1.1
can't handle hard disks at all.
                                         Versions 2.0 and 2.1
have difficulty handling hard disks bigger than 16 megabytes.
Here's why. When you first use a hard disk, DOS is supposed to
search for bad sectors on the hard disk, draw a map of where
those bad sectors are, and remember to avoid those bad sectors.
Versions 2.0 and 2.1 search for bad sectors throughout the first
16 megabytes but don't bother to map the bad sectors on the rest
of a big hard disk. If you use those versions of DOS, everything
will seem fine at first; but when you finally fill more than 16
megabytes of your disk, DOS will eventually encounter bad sectors
it didn't map, get upset, and refuse to run your programs.
                                         Versions 3.0 and 3.2
make lots of errors. Avoid them.
                                         Versions before 3.2
can't handle 3½-inch floppies. Version 3.2 handles 3½-inch
floppies, but just if they're double-density instead of
high-density.
                                         Version 4 consumes too
much RAM.
                                         Versions 6.1 and 6.3 are
weird, since they're the only version that Microsoft didn't help
design. They're the only version that doesn't accept standard
Microsoft commands.
                                         Versions 3.3, 5, and 6.2
work fine. They're the versions used by most corporations.
Version 6.0 works fine also, but just if you avoid using its
three fanciest routines (Double Space, Smart Drive, and Mem
Maker), which are disastrously unreliable. In version 6.2, those
routines have been fixed and work better, but they still cause
enough complications so you should avoid them. (I explain why in
the ``Repairs'' chapter.)
                                         A company called Stac
Electronics sued Microsoft for putting Stac's ideas into Double
Space. In 1994, Stac won the suit. The judge ordered Microsoft to
pay Stac and stop selling versions 6.0 and 6.2, so Microsoft came
out with version 6.21 (which omits Double Space) and version 6.22
(which includes a Double Space clone called Disk Space). When
Stac complained that Microsoft wasn't removing all remaining
copies of versions 6 and 6.2 from shelves quickly enough,
Microsoft squashed the problem by paying Stac even more and
buying 15% of the Stac company itself. So now Microsoft is a Stac
shareholder, and the two companies are buddies.
                                         DR DOS Instead of buying
MS-DOS, you can buy an imitation called DR DOS (or Novell DOS).
It's made by a company called Digital Research (DR), which is now
owned
by Novell.
  Though DR DOS resembles MS-DOS, I prefer MS-DOS because it
includes BASIC and is more compatible with Windows and other
software.
  Which version I'll emphasize I'll emphasize how to use DOS 6.2.
My explanation of DOS 6.2 applies to all of its variants (DOS
6.20, 6.21, and 6.22).
  Which other versions I'll explain In case you don't have DOS
6.2 yet, I'll also explain earlier versions of DOS and how they
differ.
  To keep this chapter mercifully short, I'll assume your
computer is normal. For example, I'll assume you're using a
reasonably new version of DOS (version 2 or higher), you're not
using IBM's weird versions (6.1 and 6.3), and you're not using
DR-DOS or Novell DOS.
  Modern versus classic DOS versions 5, 6, and 6.2 are similar to
each other. I'll refer to them as modern DOS. Earlier DOS
versions (2, 2.1, 2.2, 3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 4) are called
classic DOS.
  Notice that in the computer industry, the word ``classic'' is a
euphemism that means ``old, obsolete, and decrepit''. Go ahead:
follow that tradition! Next time you meet a person who's old,
obsolete, and decrepit, say ``You're a classic!''

                Cost
  The best way to get DOS is from the dealer who sold you the
computer.
  Most dealers include DOS in the computer's price. A few dealers
charge for DOS separately.
  Piracy If you buy two computers, you must buy two copies of
DOS. It's illegal to buy just one DOS and copy it to the other
computer. That's called illegal copying; it's piracy.
  Some dealers illegally copy DOS onto the computer's hard disk
without paying Microsoft or IBM for it. Recently, Microsoft has
been requiring every dealer who copies DOS onto a hard disk to
give the customer an official Microsoft certificate of
authenticity with a hologram sticker on it. The certificate comes
from Microsoft and proves that the DOS was paid for. The hologram
sticker shows you a 3-dimensional picture of the DOS version
number (such as ``6.2'').
  Usually, the certificate comes with an official Microsoft
manual (not just a book from a bookstore!) and an official set of
DOS floppy disks (on which are pasted official Microsoft labels
that are printed, not handwritten!). But the manual and floppies
are optional, and some dealers are too cheap to provide them. If
you get neither a manual nor floppies, your dealer is either a
crook, a cheapskate, or an ass ___ or the dealer got the goods
from a manufacturer who's a crook, a cheapskate, or an ass!
  How to upgrade If you own an old version of DOS, you can switch
to MS-DOS 6.22 by getting the MS-DOS 6.22 upgrade for about $50.
Switching is simple if you have a high-density 3½-inch floppy
drive and already own a version numbered above 2.1.
  If you own MS-DOS 6.0, you can switch to MS-DOS 6.22 for under
$10 by getting the MS-DOS 6.22 Step Up disk (which is 3½-inch
high-density). For example, Staples sells that disk for $8.49.
That cheap disk works just if you already own MS-DOS 6.0 (or 6.20
or 6.21). It does not work if you own an older DOS and does not
work if you own DOS 6.1 or 6.3 (which are the weird versions by
IBM). Since it costs so little and does so little (it just turns
6.0 or 6.20 or 6.21 into
6.22, which is almost the same!), it does not come with a
certificate, hologram, or manual.

                                           List of commands & equations
                                         To use DOS, you put your
fingers on the keyboard and type a DOS command or equation. The
popular DOS commands & equations are explained on these pages:
Command                                            What the
computer will do                                                       Page
a:                                                  make drive A
be the current drive                                                    106
attrib +r mary                                      make MARY be
a read-only file                                                        134
b:                                                  make drive B
be the current drive                                                    106
backup c:mary a:                                    copy MARY to
a set of floppies in drive A                                            132
c:                                                  make drive C
be the current drive                                                    106
cd sarah                                            make SARAH be
the current directory                                                   107
chkdsk                                              check the
disk for bytes and errors                                               108
cls                                                 clear the
screen, so it becomes blank                                             102
copy con mary                                       copy from
keyboard to a file called MARY                                          112
date                                                show the
date, and let it be changed                                             102
defrag                                              rearrange
files so they're not fragmented                                         128
del mary                                            delete a file
called MARY from the disk                                               114
deltree sarah                                       delete the
SARAH folder & everything in it                                         114
dir                                                 show a
directory of all files                                                  103
dir sarah                                           show a
directory of all the files in SARAH                                     105
dir sarah /s                                        show the
SARAH directory & subdirectories                                        129
diskcopy a: b:                                      make disk B
be an exact copy of disk A                                              111
do music                                            do the MUSIC
program in MUSIC folder                                                 130
echo off                                            stop
displaying DOS commands                                                 116
echo wow                                            show the word
"wow" on the screen                                                     102
edit mary                                           edit file
called MARY, using modern editor                                        114
edlin mary                                          edit file
called MARY, using an old editor                                        115
fdisk                                               partition the
hard disk into C, D, E, etc.                                            124
format a:                                           format the
disk in drive A                                                         110
format a: /s                                        format disk
in drive A & make it bootable                                           124
help                                                list all the
DOS commands & explain them                                             129
Lh doskey                                           load the
doskey driver into upper memory                                         122
Lh mode LPT1 retry=b           wait for printer to respond, even
if long wait                                                            122
Lh mouse                                            load the
mouse driver into upper memory                                          121
Lh mscdex /d:mscd000           load CD-ROM driver into upper
memory                                                                  122
Lh share                                            check if
programs interfere with each other                                      122
md sarah                                            make a new
directory, called SARAH                                                 112
mem                                                 show how big
the RAM memory is                                                       127
more<mary                                           show a file
called MARY, a page at a time                                           130
move mary a:                                        move MARY to
drive A, and delete from C                                              114
msav                                                run the
MicroSoft Anti-Virus program                                            128
msbackup                                            copy from the
hard disk to a set of floppies                                          131
msd                                                 make
MicroSoft Diagnotics analyze computer                                   127
path c:\dos                                         whenever a
program not found, search c:\dos                                        121
print mary                                          copy a file
called MARY onto paper                                                  126
prompt $p$g                                         make prompt
be ``C:\>'' instead of ``C>''                                           121
rd sarah                                            remove
directory SARAH from the disk                                           114
rem written by Joey                                 ignore this
remark & skip ahead to next line                                        129
ren mary lambchop                                   rename MARY;
change to LAMBCHOP                                                      114
restore a: c: /s                                    copy all
backed-up files to the hard disk                                        132
scandisk                                            scan the disk
for errors and fix them                                                 127
set temp=c:\dos                                     define
``temp'' to mean ``c:\dos''                                             121
subst a: b:\                                        when told to
use drive A, will use B instead                                         130
sys a:                                              copy the DOS
system files to drive A                                                 124
time                                                show the
time, and let it be changed                                             102
type mary                                           show, on the
screen, what's in the MARY file                                         113
undelete                                            try to
retrieve any files accidentally deleted                                 129
unformat a:                                         try to
unformat the disk in drive A                                            110
ver                                                 say which
version of DOS is being used                                            102
win                                                 start running
Windows                                                                 122
xcopy a: b: /s                                      copy all
files and subdirectories from A to B                                    135

Equation
Meaning                                                                Page
buffers=40
handle 40 sectors at once                                               119
device=dos\emm386.exe ram d=48                               use
expanded RAM                                                            118
device=dos\himem.sys /testmem:off                            use
extended RAM                                                            118
devicehigh=dos\ansi.sys                                      use
special characters                                                      119
devicehigh=dos\setver.exe
handle old software                                                     119
devicehigh=mtmcdas.sys /d:mscd000                            use
CD-ROM drive                                                            120
dos=high,umb                                                 use
high & upper RAM                                                        119
files=50
handle 50 files at once                                                 119
stacks=0,0
create no stacks                                                        119
          How to start DOS
  Here's how to use start using DOS. If you ever have difficulty
following my instructions, phone me anytime for free help at
617-666-2666.
  DOS comes on a pile of floppy disks. When you buy a new
computer, your dealer typically copies DOS onto the hard disk for
you (so that the hard disk contains DOS already). Copying DOS
onto the hard disk is called installing (or loading) DOS onto the
hard disk.
  Here's how to use a computer whose hard disk contains DOS.
  If your computer doesn't have a hard disk yet, or its hard disk
doesn't contain DOS yet, practice on a friend's computer whose
hard disk does contain DOS. (Later, in a section called ``How to
make a blank hard disk bootable'', I'll explain how to copy DOS
onto your hard disk.)
  Unpack the computer When you buy a computer system, it
typically comes in three cardboard boxes. Open them, and put
their contents on your desk.
  One box contains the monitor. One box contains the printer. The
third and biggest box contains the computer's main part (the
system unit), keyboard, mouse, and floppy disks.
  Each box also contains power cords, cables, and instruction
manuals.
  Here are exceptions:
If you didn't buy a printer, the printer box is missing.
If you bought a tower computer, put it on the floor instead of on
your desk.
If you bought a portable computer (notebook or laptop), there is
no monitor.
Some computers don't come with a mouse.
  Connect the cables Into the back of the system unit, plug the
cables that come from the monitor, printer, keyboard, and mouse.
Into your wall's electrical socket, plug the power cords that
come from the monitor, printer, and system unit.
  Here are exceptions:
For some computers, such as the Leading Edge Model D, the
keyboard's cable plugs into the system unit's FRONT instead of
back.

For some monochrome monitors, the power cord plugs into the
system unit instead of into the wall.

For portable computers, the keyboard and screen come attached to
the system unit, so you don't need to run cables between them.
  Find the floppy drives At the front of the system unit, you'll
see one or two slots. (In most computers, the slots are
horizontal.) You can put floppy disks in those slots. Those slots
are called the floppy drives.
  Exception:
If your computer is a notebook or laptop, the floppy drives are
in the computer's right side instead of in the front.
  What's in the floppy drives? Remove any disks from the floppy
drives, so that the floppy drives are empty and you can start
fresh.
  Does your computer have a hard disk containing DOS? If so, your
computer is normal: leave the floppy drives empty and skip ahead
to the section called ``Turn on the computer''.
  If your computer does not have a hard disk ___ or the hard disk
doesn't contain DOS yet ___ you must put the main DOS floppy disk
into the main floppy drive. Here's how. . . .
  Step 1: grab the main DOS floppy disk. That disk usually has a
label that says ``DOS Disk 1'' or ``DOS Program Disk'' or ``DOS
Install Disk''. Make sure you grab the original disk, not a copy
made by a friend. (On the original disk, the label
is printed; on a copy, the label is usually handwritten.)
                                         Step 2: find the main
floppy drive. If you have two floppy drives, the main floppy
drive is usually the one on the left or top.
                                         Step 3: put that disk
into that drive. If the drive's slot is horizontal, make sure the
disk's label is on top of the disk; if the slot is vertical, make
sure the disk's label is on the disk's left side. If the disk is
5¼-inch, it has a big oval cutout; if the disk is 3½-inch, it has
a chrome metal slider; make sure that cutout or slider goes into
the drive before the label does.
                                         If the disk is 5¼-inch,
close the drive's door. Here's how: if the slot is horizontal,
pull the door latch down; if the slot is vertical, pull the door
latch to the right.
                                         Turn on the computer
Flip the computer's power switch to the ON position.
                                         Can't find the power
switch? Here are some hints. . . .
                                         The power switch is on
or near the system unit's right side. (If you don't find the
switch on the right side, check the right part of the front side
or the right part of the back side.)
                                         On traditional
computers, the power switch is red. It might say ``1'' instead of
``ON'' and ``0'' instead of ``OFF''.
                                         On some computers (such
Quantex's), the power ``switch'' is actually a pushbutton on the
front, near the right.
                                         Turn on the screen Turn
on the computer's screen (monitor or TV). If you're using a TV,
turn it to channel 3, 4, or 33.
                                         After a few seconds, the
screen will display some messages. (If you don't see the messages
clearly, make sure the cable from the screen to the system unit
is plugged in tightly, and adjust the screen's contrast and
brightness knobs.)
                                         Examine the keyboard
Test your powers of observation by staring at the keyboard. Try
to find the following keys (but don't press them yet). . . .
                                         Find the ENTER key.
That's the big key on the right side of the keyboard's main
section. It has a bent arrow on it. It's also called the RETURN
key. You press it at the end of every line you type; it makes the
computer read what you typed.
                                         Find the BACKSPACE key.
It's above the ENTER key and to the right of the + key. It has a
left-arrow on it. You press it when you want to erase a mistake.
                                         Find the key that has
the letter A on it. When you press the A key, you'll be typing a
small ``a''.
                                         Near the keyboard's
bottom left corner, find the SHIFT key. It has an up-arrow on it.
Under the ENTER key, you'll see another SHIFT key. Press either
SHIFT key when you want to capitalize a letter. For example, when
you want to type a capital A, hold down a SHIFT key; and while
you keep holding down the SHIFT key, tap the A key.
                                         Find the key that looks
like this:
┌───┐
│!  │
│1  │
└───┘
It's near the keyboard's top left corner. That's the 1 key. You
press it when you want to type the number 1. Press the keys to
its right when you want to type the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9, and 0. If you press the 1 key while holding down a SHIFT key,
you'll be typing an exclamation point (!). Here's the rule: if a
key shows two symbols (such as ! and 1), and you want to type the
top symbol (!), you must typically hold down a SHIFT key.
  Find the key that has the letter U on it. To the right of that
key, you'll see the letters I and O. Don't confuse the letter I
with the number 1; don't confuse the letter O with the number 0.
  In the keyboard's bottom row, find the wide key that has
nothing written on it. That's the SPACE bar. Press it whenever
you want to leave a blank space.

          Get to the standard C prompt
  The standard C prompt is this symbol:
C:\>
It consists of 4 characters: a capital C, a colon, a backslash,
and a greater sign.
  Look at the screen's bottom message. If the bottom message says
___
C:\>
your computer is ready for DOS: skip ahead to the section called
``Simple commands''.
  If the bottom message does not say ``C:\>'', your computer
isn't ready. Here's what to do:
On the screen                   What to do
bottom message says ``C:\DOS>'' Type ``cd \'' (then press the
ENTER key).
bottom message says ``C:\'' then a word then ``>''Type ``cd \''
(then press the ENTER key).

bottom message says ``C>''      Type ``prompt $p$g'' (then press
the ENTER key).

bottom message says ``D>'', ``E>'', or ``F>''Type ``c:'' (then
press the ENTER key).
bottom message begins with ``D:'', ``E:'', or ``F:''Type ``c:''
(then press the ENTER key).

bottom message says ``Enter new date (mm-dd-yy):''Press the ENTER
key.
bottom message says ``Enter new time:''Press the ENTER key.

bottom message says ``ENTER=Continue F1=Help F3=Exit''Tap the F3
key then the Y key.
bottom message says ``or press Esc to Exit''Do NOT insert the
SELECT disk. Just tap the Esc key.

bottom right corner says ``Doc 1 Pg 1 Ln 1" Pos 1"''Tap the F7
key, then the N key, then the Y key.

top line says ``Program Manager''Tap the Alt key, then the F key,
then the X key, then the ENTER key.
top line says ``MS-DOS Shell'' or ``Start Programs''Tap the F3
key.

a list of choices               Choose ``Exit to DOS''.
  After doing one of those actions, check whether the screen's
bottom message says ``C:\>'' yet. If it does not say ``C:\>'',
look through that list of actions again, and keep trying until
you finally see ``C:\>'' at the bottom of the screen. When you
finally see ``C:\>'', skip ahead to the next section (entitled
``Simple commands'').
  Non-system disk Instead of saying ``C:\>'', the computer might
gripe by saying:
Non-System disk or disk error
Replace and press any key when ready
That means you put the wrong floppy disks in the floppy drives,
or your hard disk doesn't contain DOS yet.
  When you get that message, remove any floppy disks from the
floppy drives, so the floppy drives are empty.
  If your dealer says your computer has a hard disk containing
DOS, leave the floppy drives empty. If your dealer says your
computer lacks a hard disk (or your hard disk lacks DOS), try
again to put the main DOS disk into the main floppy drive.
  Then press the ENTER key.
  BASIC words If your computer is manufactured by IBM, the bottom
message might be this list of BASIC words:
1LIST   2RUN   3LOAD"  4SAVE"  5CONT  6,"LPT1 7TRON  8TROFF
9KEY    0SCREEN
Treat that problem just as if the computer had said ``Non-System
disk''.
  A prompt Instead of saying ``C:\>'', the computer might say
``A>'' or ``A:\>''. That means the computer is ignoring the
concept of a ``hard disk''. Here's what to do.
  If your computer has a hard disk containing DOS, turn off the
screen and computer, remove any floppy disks from the floppy
drives, wait until the fan in the computer's motor becomes
silent, then turn the computer and screen back on.
  If your computer has no hard disk (or its hard disk is broken
or lacks DOS), you're stuck! You must use ``A>'' or ``A:\>''
instead of ``C:\>'', and a few of the examples in this book won't
work on your computer (until you get a hard disk containing DOS).
                                                       How to shut down
                                                     When you
finish using the computer, here's the safest way to shut the
computer down, so you don't lose any data.
                                                     First, make
the computer display the standard C prompt, so the screen's
bottom message is this:
C:\>
(If you can't figure out how to make the computer display that C
prompt, make it display ``A:\>'' or ``A>'' or ``1 LIST''
instead.)
                                                     Remove any
floppy disks from the drives.
                                                     To be safe,
wait ten seconds. (The purpose of that wait is to let the DOS 6.0
version of the SMARTDRIVE caching program finish editing your
hard disk. While it edits, you'll hear some clicking sounds. If
you're sure you're not using that caching program or a similar
program, you don't need to wait. If you're using a different
version of SMARTDRIVE ___ such as the version that comes with DOS
5 or DOS 6.2 or Windows ___ you don't need to wait.)
                                                     If your
screen is a monitor or TV, turn it off. Then turn off the
computer.

           SIMPLE COMMANDS
  After the C prompt (which is ``C:\>''), the computer waits for
you to type a DOS command. When typing a DOS command, remember
these principles:
Type the command after the C prompt. Remember that the C prompt
is typed by the computer, not by you.

To capitalize a letter, or type a character that's on the top
part of a key, hold down the SHIFT key; and while you keep
holding down the SHIFT key, tap the key that has the character
you want.

If you type a command incorrectly, press the BACKSPACE key, which
is above the ENTER key and has a left-arrow on it.

When you finish typing a command, press the ENTER key. That key
makes the computer read what you typed.
  Start by trying these simple DOS commands. . . .

            Version (ver)
  After the C prompt you can type ``ver'', like this:
C:\>ver
(When you finish typing that command, remember to press the ENTER
key.)
  The ``ver'' command makes the computer tell you which VERsion
of MS-DOS you're using. For example, if you're using MS-DOS
Version 6.2, the computer will say:
MS-DOS Version 6.20

                Echo
  The computer's your obedient slave: it will say whatever you
wish!
  For example, here's how to make the computer say ``wow''. After
the C prompt, type ``echo wow'', like this:
C:\>echo wow
(To type the space after the word echo, press the SPACE bar,
which is the long horizontal bar at the bottom of the keyboard.)
Remember to press the ENTER key at the end of that command. Then
the computer will say:
wow
  If you want the computer to say it loves you, type this:
C:\>echo I love you
(To capitalize the letter I, hold down the SHIFT key; and while
you keep holding down the SHIFT key, tap the I key.) That command
makes the computer say:
I love you
  If you want the computer to say it likes strawberry ice cream,
type this:
C:\>echo I like strawberry ice cream
Then the computer will say:
I like strawberry ice cream
  Be creative! Make the computer say something wild!
  Notice that the echo command makes the computer act like a
canyon: whatever you say into the computer, the echo command
makes the computer echo back.

         Clear screen (cls)
  Suppose you make the computer say ``I love you'' (and other
things that are even wilder), and then your boss walks by. You
might be embarrassed to let your boss see your love messages.
Here's how to hide all the screen's messages.
                                         After the C prompt, type
``cls'', like this:
C:\>cls
The ``cls'' command makes the computer CLear the Screen, so all
messages on the screen are erased and the screen becomes blank.
The only thing that will remain on the screen is ___
C:\>
so that you can give another command.

                                                       Date
                                         The computer has a
built-in calendar. To use it, type ``date'' after the C prompt
like this:
C:\>date
That makes the computer tell you the date. For example, if today
is Wednesday, January 24, 1996, the computer should say:
Current date is Wed 01-24-1996
                                         To remember the date,
the computer uses its built-in digital clock/calendar. If the
clock/calendar's battery has run down or is missing, the computer
will say a wrong date.
                                         Confirming the date
After the computer says what it thinks the date is, it says:
Enter new date (mm-dd-yy):
                                         If the computer's date
seems correct, press the ENTER key.
                                         If you notice that the
computer's date is wrong, remind the computer of the correct
date. For example, if the correct date is January 24, 1996, type
``1-24-96'' then press ENTER at the end of that date. (Do not
type ``Wednesday'' or ``Wed''; the computer will figure that out
automatically.)

                                                       Time
                                         To find out what time it
is, type ``time'' after the C prompt like this:
C:\>time
That makes the computer tell you the time.
                                         For example, if the time
is 2.71 seconds after 1:45AM, the computer will say:
Current time is  1:45:02.71a
The ``a'' means ``AM''. (If your DOS is classic, it will omit the
``a''.)
                                         If the time is 2.71
seconds after 1:45PM, the computer will say:
Current time is  1:45:02.71p
The ``p'' means ``PM''. (If your DOS is classic, it will omit the
``p'', use a 24-hour clock, and say ``13:45:02.71''.)
                                         To remember the time,
the computer uses its built-in digital clock. The computer will
say a wrong time if the clock's battery has run down or is
missing, or the clock's thinking has been interrupted by other
computer activities, or your town has switched to daylight
savings time, or you've taken the computer on an airplane to a
different time zone.
                                         Confirming the time
After the computer says what it thinks the time is, it says:
Enter new time:
                                         If the computer's time
seems correct, press the ENTER key.
                                         If you notice that the
computer's time is wrong, remind the computer of the correct
time. For example, if the correct time is exactly 1:45PM, type
``1:45p'' (for modern DOS) or ``13:45'' (for classic DOS); then
press ENTER at the end of that time.
           Directory (dir)
  After the C prompt you can type ``dir'', like this:
C:\>dir
That ``dir'' command makes the computer show you a directory of
the files that are stored on the hard disk.
  If you're using DOS 6.2, the directory looks like this:
DOS          <DIR>         06-01-94   3:53a
WINDOWS      <DIR>         06-02-94   3:10a
WP           <DIR>         06-19-94   6:24p
AMIPRO       <DIR>         06-15-94   3:37a
QA           <DIR>         06-04-94   5:48p
EXCEL        <DIR>         06-08-94  10:10p
BACKUP       <DIR>         06-09-94   4:06p
COMMAND  COM        54,619 09-30-93   6:20a
CONFIG   SYS           182 06-28-94  11:12p
AUTOEXEC BAT           166 06-29-94  12:39a
DO       BAT            44 06-09-94  11:18p
(On your computer, the directory might look slightly different,
depending on what your hard disk contains and which version of
DOS you're using For example, if your DOS is earlier than version
6.2, it's too stupid to put commas in big numbers such as
54,619.)
  In that sample directory, one line says:
COMMAND  COM        54,619 09-30-93   6:20a
That line says the hard disk has a file whose name is
``COMMAND.COM''; that file contains 54,619 bytes and was last
updated on September 30, 1993, at 6:20AM.
  The next line says the disk also has a file named
``CONFIG.SYS'', which contains 182 bytes and was last updated on
June 28, 1994 at 11:12PM. The lines underneath say that the disk
also has a file called ``AUTOEXEC.BAT'' and a file called
``DO.BAT''.
  Extensions Notice that a file's name (such as ``AUTOEXEC.BAT'')
consists of up to 8 characters (such as ``AUTOEXEC''), then a
period, then an extension of up to 3 characters (such as
``BAT''). The period separates the main part of the filename from
the extension.
  In the directory that the computer prints on your screen, each
line shows a file's name and extension but doesn't bother showing
the period.
  The period is called a dot. So if you're chatting with another
computer expert about ``AUTOEXEC.BAT'', pronounce it ``AUTOEXEC
dot BAT''.
                                         The computer can handle
many different types of files. Each type has a different
extension:
Ext'n                                      What the file contains
.BAT                                       a BATch of DOS
commands
.COM                                       a short program that's
been COMpiled
.EXE                                       a fancy program that
you can EXEcute
.BAS                                       a program written by
using BASIC
.PRG                                       a PRoGram written by
using DBASE or FOXPRO
.SYS                                       list of hardware you
bought & how you want SYStem to operate
.386                                       info that's useful
just if your CPU is a 386 (or 486 or Pentium)
.TXT                                       TeXT that you can read
.HLP                                       messages that HeLP you
learn how to use a program you bought
.DOC                                       DOCument written by a
word processor such as Microsoft Word
.OLD                                       an OLD, outdated
version, being kept just in case of emergency
.BAK                                       a BAcKup version,
being kept just in case of emergency
.DAT                                       DATa
.TMP                                       TeMPorary data, which
the computer will use and then erase
.INI                                       data to INItialize a
program, so the program starts properly
.DBF                                       a DataBase File that
contains data used by DBASE or FOXPRO
.DTF                                       a DaTabase File that
contains data used by Q&A
.IDX                                       an InDeX to a database
file
.XLS                                       an EXceL Spreadsheet,
created by using the Excel program
.WK1                                       a WorKsheet created by
using the 1-2-3 spreadsheet program
.WQ1                                       a Worksheet created by
using Quattro (which imitates 1-2-3)
                                         Folders The sample
directory's top line says:
DOS          <DIR>         06-01-94   3:53a
That line says the hard disk has a file named ``DOS''. The <DIR>
means that the file is actually a directory folder that contains
other files! That folder was created on June 1, 1994 at 3:53AM;
many items have been put in that folder since then.
                                         The next line says:
WINDOWS      <DIR>         06-02-94   3:10a
That means the hard disk has a folder named ``WINDOWS'', created
on June 2, 1994 at 3:10AM.
                                         The lines underneath say
that the hard disk also has folders named ``WP'', ``AMIPRO'',
``QA'', ``EXCEL'', and ``BACKUP''.
                                         Summary statistics When
the computer finishes printing the directory, it prints summary
statistics:
       11 file(s)         55,011 bytes
                      21,426,176 bytes free
                                         That means the directory
contains 11 files. (7 of them are folders, such as DOS and
WINDOWS. The other 4 are simple files, such as COMMAND.COM and
CONFIG.SYS.)
                                         The simple files consume
55,011 bytes altogether. The hard disk uses other bytes to store
the folders and any files that are in the folders.
                                         (If your DOS is classic,
it doesn't bother to say ``55,011 bytes''.)
                                         Besides the simple
files, folders, and files in folders, the hard disk also contains
these 6 special items: 2 hidden files (called ``IO.SYS'' and
``MSDOS.SYS''), 2 copies of the file allocation table (FAT), the
boot record, and the directory itself.
                                         The ``21,426,176 bytes
free'' means that over 21 million bytes on the hard disk are
still unused. (On your computer, the number of bytes free might
be different.)
  Pausing When you type ``dir'', the computer tries to show you a
directory of the files that are stored on the hard disk. If your
hard disk has more files than can fit on the screen, the list of
files moves up the screen too quickly for you to read.
  Here's how to see the directory more easily. . . .
  Instead of typing ``dir'', type ``dir /p'', like this:
C:\>dir /p
That means ``directory pausing''. When you give that command, the
computer starts printing the directory on the screen; but when
the screen becomes full, the computer pauses and says:
Press any key to continue . . .
  While the computer pauses, read the part of the directory
that's on the screen. When you finish reading that part, strike a
key (such as the ENTER key). Then the computer will print the
rest of the directory, pausing at the end of each screenful
(page).
  So ``dir /p'' means ``directory, pausing at the end of each
page'' (or ``directory paged'').
  Wide If you type ``dir /w'', you'll see a directory that's wide
and leaves out the details; the computer will print:
[DOS]           [WINDOWS]       [WP]            [AMIPRO]
[QA]
[EXCEL]         [BACKUP]        COMMAND.COM     CONFIG.SYS
AUTOEXEC.BAT
DO.BAT
  What's a switch? A switch is a comment that begins with a
slash. You've already learned about two switches: ``/p'' and
``/w''.
  To type the slash, make sure you press the forward slash key,
which says ``/'' on it. Do not press the key that says ``\'',
which is a backslash.
  If you wish, you can put a blank space before the slash. The
blank space is optional. For example, you can say either ``dir
/p'' or ``dir/p''.
  You can combine switches. For example, if you want the
directory to pause and also be wide, say ``dir /p/w''.
  The computer doesn't care which switch you type first: typing
``dir /p/w'' does the same thing as typing ``dir /w/p''.
  Fancy switches (in modern DOS) If your DOS is classic, skip
ahead to the next section, entitled ``Attributes''. Modern DOS
understands these fancy switches. . . .
  Order. You can put the letter O after dir, like this: ``dir
/o''. That shows you the directory in alphabetical order: the
computer lists the folders from A to Z, then lists the other
files from A to Z, like this:
AMIPRO       <DIR>         09-15-94   3:37a
BACKUP       <DIR>         06-09-94   4:06p
DOS          <DIR>         06-01-94   3:53a
EXCEL        <DIR>         06-08-94  10:10p
QA           <DIR>         06-04-94   5:48p
WINDOWS      <DIR>         06-02-94   3:10a
WP           <DIR>         06-19-94   6:24p
AUTOEXEC BAT           166 06-29-94  12:39a
COMMAND  COM        54,619 09-30-93   6:20a
CONFIG   SYS           182 06-28-94  11:12p
DO       BAT            44 06-09-94  11:18p
  If you want to see the directory in chronological order (from
the oldest date to the newest date), say ``dir /od'' (which means
``DIRrectory in Order of Date''). If you want to see the
directory in order of size, say ``dir /os''; that makes the
computer display the folders first, then display the other files
in order of size, from the smallest number of bytes to the
largest.
  If you want to see the directory alphabetized by extension (so
that all the .BAT files come before the .COM files), say ``dir
/oe'' (which means ``DIRectory in Order of Extension''). Better
yet, say ``dir /oen'' (which means ``DIRectory in Order of
Extension and Name''), so that all the .BAT files come before the
.COM files, and all the .BAT files are in alphabetical order.
  At the end of any of those commands, you can put ``/p'' to make
the computer pause at the end of each screenful.

  Lowercase. You can put the letter L after dir, like this: ``dir
/l''. That shows you the directory in lowercase letters instead
of capitals, so you see this:
dos          <DIR>         06-01-94   3:53a
windows      <DIR>         06-02-94   3:10a
wp           <DIR>         06-19-94   6:24p
amipro       <DIR>         06-15-94   3:37a
qa           <DIR>         06-04-94   5:48p
excel        <DIR>         06-08-94  10:10p
backup       <DIR>         06-09-94   4:06p
command  com        54,619 09-30-93   6:20a
config   sys           182 06-28-94  11:12p
autoexec bat           166 06-29-94  12:39a
do       bat            44 06-09-94  11:18p
That L switch was invented because most people can read lowercase
words faster than capitalized words.
  Brief. You can say ``dir /b''. That makes the computer print
the directory briefly, without bothering to print each file's
length, time, and date, and without bothering to print summary
statistics. The computer will print just:
DOS
WINDOWS
WP
AMIPRO
QA
EXCEL
BACKUP
COMMAND.COM
CONFIG.SYS
AUTOEXEC.BAT
DO.BAT
The computer will print it very fast ___ instantly!
  The computer doesn't understand ``dir /b/w''. If you say ``dir
/b/w'', the computer ignores the /w and does just ``dir /b''.
  Attributes Some files have special qualities, called
attributes.
  For example, your hard disk contains two special files, called
``IO.SYS'' and ``MSDOS.SYS''. Those files contain the
fundamentals of DOS and must never be erased! To prevent you from
accidentally erasing them, the computer hides them from you, so
you don't even know they're there! When you say ``dir'', the
computer is sneaky and purposely avoids mentioning those two
files!
  Modern DOS lets you peek at those two hidden files. Just say
``dir /ah''. That makes the computer show a directory of files
having the Attribute of being Hidden. For example, if you say
``dir /ah'' using DOS 6.2, the typical computer will say:
IO       SYS        40,566 09-30-93   6:20a
MSDOS    SYS        38,138 09-30-93   6:20a
  Exception: if you're using PC-DOS instead of generic MS-DOS
(because your computer's built by IBM instead of being a generic
clone), those files are named ``IBMBIO.COM'' and ``IBMDOS.COM''
instead.
  Modern DOS lets you see the names of all your folders
(directories). Just say ``dir /ad''. That makes the computer show
a directory of all files having the Attribute of being
Directories. The computer will say:
DOS          <DIR>         06-01-94   3:53a
WINDOWS      <DIR>         06-02-94   3:10a
WP           <DIR>         06-19-94   6:24p
AMIPRO       <DIR>         06-15-94   3:37a
QA           <DIR>         06-04-94   5:48p
EXCEL        <DIR>         06-08-94  10:10p
BACKUP       <DIR>         06-09-94   4:06p

                                         What's in a folder? To
find out what's in a folder, say ``dir'' then the folder's name.
For example, to find out what's in the DOS folder, say ``dir
dos'', like this:
C:\>dir dos
                                         You can put a switch at
the end of that command:
C:\>dir dos /p
                                         To find out what's in
the WINDOWS folder, say ``dir windows''. (That command works just
if you have a WINDOWS folder. If you do not have a WINDOWS
folder, the computer gripes by saying ``File not found''.)
                                         Saying ``dir dos'' shows
you the files that are in the DOS folder. That list of files is
called the DOS directory. Saying ``dir windows'' shows you the
files that are in the Windows folder; that list of files is
called the Windows directory. Saying just ``dir'' shows you the
files that are not in folders; that list of files is called the
main directory (or root directory).
                                         So to see the root
directory, just type ``dir'' after the standard C prompt, like
this:
C:\>dir
The other directories (such as the DOS directory and the Windows
directory) are called subdirectories.
                                         Just one file To find
info about one file, say ``dir'' then the file's name. For
example, to find info about ``COMMAND.COM'', say ``dir
command.com''. The computer will print:
COMMAND  COM        54,619 09-30-93   6:20a
                                         Versions of COMMAND.COM
To tell which version of COMMAND.COM you have, use this chart:
COMMAND.COM version                                      Size
Date
Time
COMMAND.COM in MS-DOS 5                                    47,845
bytes
04-09-91
5:00a
COMMAND.COM in MS-DOS 6                                    52,925
bytes
03-10-93
6:00a
COMMAND.COM in MS-DOS 6.20                                 54,619
bytes
09-30-93
6:20a
COMMAND.COM in MS-DOS 6.21                                 54,619
bytes
02-13-94
6:21a
COMMAND.COM in MS-DOS 6.22                                 54,645
bytes
05-31-94
6:22a
                                         For those modern
versions of MS-DOS, notice that the version number is the same as
the time: MS-DOS 5 was invented at 5am, MS-DOS 6 was invented at
6am, and MS-DOS 6.20 was invented at 6:20am. So either Microsoft
programmers do all their work early in the morning, or else
Microsoft lies about the time.
                                         Most computerists
believe that Microsoft lies about the time ___ not just the time
when COMMAND.COM was invented, but also the time when future
products will come out. As Microsoft programmers say, ``Time is
reprogrammable.''
                                         What if your COMMAND.COM
does not say 5am, 6am, 6:20am, 6:21am, or 6:22am, or your
COMMAND.COM has a different date or size than listed in that
chart? Then you're probably using an older version (such as
version 4, which was timed at 12am), or an even newer version
(such as 6.23 or 7), or a variant version (such as IBM PC-DOS),
or a version that's been infected by a virus.
                                         Try this experiment:
examine your DOS directory (by saying ``dir dos /p''). You'll
notice that most of your DOS files have the same date and time as
your COMMAND.COM.
  Wildcards The symbol ``*'' is called an asterisk or a star. To
type it, tap the 8 key while holding down the SHIFT key.
  Try this experiment: type ``dir *.bat''. (That command is
pronounced ``dir star dot bat''.) That makes the computer print
an abridged directory, showing information about just the files
whose names end in ``.bat''. The computer will print:
AUTOEXEC BAT           106 06-29-94  12:39a
DO       BAT            44 06-09-94  11:18p
  The symbol ``*'' means ``anything''. That's why saying ``dir
*.bat'' makes the computer show a directory of anything that ends
in ``.bat''.
  To see a directory of files whose names begin with d, say ``dir
d*''. The computer will print:
DOS          <DIR>         06-01-94   3:53a
DO       BAT            44 06-09-94  11:18p
  A symbol (such as ``*'') that ``matches anything'' is called a
wildcard.
  Different drives Your computer's main floppy drive is called
drive A. If your computer has two floppy drives, the second
floppy drive is called drive B. In most computers, drive A is on
top of drive B or to the left of drive B.
  The main part of your computer's main hard drive is called
drive C. If your computer has more than one hard drive, or its
hard drive is partitioned into several parts, or you have a
CD-ROM drive, or your computer is wired to other computers on a
computer network, those additional disk surfaces are called drive
D, drive E, drive F, etc.
  To practice using drive A, try this experiment. . . .
  Step 1: find drive A. It's the main floppy drive. If your
computer has two floppy drives, drive A is probably on top of
drive B or to the left of drive B.
  Step 2: notice drive A's size. Take a ruler and measure the
slot in drive A. If the slot is 5¼ inches long, drive A is called
5¼-inch. If the slot is 3½ inches long, drive A is called
3½-inch.
  Step 3: grab a floppy disk. Pick a disk that's the same size as
drive A. (For example, if drive A is 5¼-inch, pick a disk that's
5¼-inch.) Pick a disk that contains information already. (For
example, pick a floppy disk that contains DOS or Windows or Word
Perfect or a game or some other program or data.)
  Step 4: put that disk into drive A. If the drive's slot is
horizontal, make sure the disk's label is on top of the disk; if
the slot is vertical, make sure the disk's label is on the disk's
left side. If the disk is 5¼-inch, it has a big oval cutout; if
the disk is 3½-inch, it has a chrome metal slider; make sure that
cutout or slider goes into the drive before the label does.
  If the disk is 5¼-inch, close the drive's door. Here's how: if
the slot is horizontal, pull the door latch down; if the slot is
vertical, pull the door latch to the right.
  Step 5: type ``dir a:''. You can type ``dir a:'' after the
standard C prompt, so your screen looks like this:
C:\>dir a:
To type the colon ``:'', make sure you hold down the SHIFT key.
  If you're lucky, the computer will print a directory that lists
the files on drive A's disk.
  If you're unlucky, the computer will gripe by saying ``Not
ready reading drive A'' or ``General failure reading drive A''.
Then the computer will ask:
Abort, Retry, Fail?
To respond, choose Abort (by pressing the A key). Then the
computer will say ``C:\>'' again. Try again to do the five steps
properly. (Make sure you don't insert the disk backwards or
upside-down. If you're using a 5¼-inch disk, make sure you close
the door. If you're still having trouble, try using a different
floppy disk instead, or try using the other floppy drive.)
                                         Once you've mastered the
art of typing ``dir a:'', be bold: experiment! For example, try
typing switches (such as ``dir a: /p'') or wildcards (such as
``dir a:*.bat'' or ``dir a:w*''). Try putting other floppy disks
into drive A, and find out what's on them (by typing ``dir a:''
again).
                                         If you have a drive B,
put a floppy disk into it and find out what's on that disk by
typing ``dir b:''.

                                           Change drive (a: or b: or c:)
                                           When the computer is
waiting for you to type a DOS command, the computer normally
prints this prompt:
C:\>
That's called the standard C prompt. It means the computer is
thinking about drive C.
                                         A prompt Here's how to
change the prompt, so the computer will think about drive A
instead of drive C. In drive A put a floppy that contains info,
then say ``a:'', so your screen looks like this:
C:\>a:
When you press ENTER at the end of that line, the computer
changes the prompt to this:
A:\>
That's called the A prompt. It means that the computer is
thinking about drive A.
                                         After the A prompt, try
saying ``dir'', so your screen looks like this:
A:\>dir
Because of the A prompt, that ``dir'' makes the computer print a
directory of drive A (instead of drive C).
                                         When you finish using
the floppy in drive A and want to use the hard disk again, make
the computer return to a standard C prompt. Here's how. After the
A prompt, type ``c:'', so your screen looks like this:
A:\>c:
When you press ENTER at the end of that line, the computer will
change the prompt back to this:
C:\>
                                         The drive the computer
thinks about is called the current drive (or default drive). If
the computer says ``C:\>'', the default drive is C; if the
computer says ``A:\>'', the default drive is A.
                                         So to make A become the
default drive, say ``a:'' (and press ENTER). To make C become the
default drive again, say ``c:'' (and press ENTER).
                                         B prompt If you have a
drive B, try this experiment: in drive B put a floppy that
contains info, then say ``b:'' (and press ENTER). The computer
changes the prompt to this:
B:\>
Then if you type ``dir'', the computer will print a directory of
drive B. To return to a C prompt, type ``c:'' (and press ENTER).
  Change directory (cd)
  One of the folders on your hard disk is called DOS. To find out
what's in that folder, you can say ``dir dos'' after the C
prompt, like this:
C:\>dir dos
  Here's another way to find out what's in the DOS folder. Say
``cd dos''. (The ``cd'' means ``change directory''.) That makes
the computer think about the DOS folder. The computer changes the
prompt to this:
C:\DOS>
That means the computer is thinking about drive C's DOS folder.
If you type ``dir'' after that prompt, the computer will print a
directory of the files in drive C's DOS folder.
  When you finish using the DOS folder, you should return to the
standard C prompt by saying ``cd \''. (Make sure you type a
backslash \, not a forward slash /.) Then the computer will print
a standard C prompt again:
C:\>
  Suppose your hard disk contains a WINDOWS folder. Here's how to
explore what's in that folder. . . .
  First, make sure the screen shows a standard C prompt:
``C:\>''. Then say ``cd windows''. That makes the computer think
about the WINDOWS folder, so the computer changes the prompt to
this:
C:\WINDOWS>
  To find out what's in that WINDOWS folder, say ``dir /p'',
which makes the computer print a directory of the files in the
WINDOWS folder.
  You get a surprise: one of the files in the WINDOWS folder is
another folder, called SYSTEM. Yes, SYSTEM is a folder that's
inside the WINDOWS folder.
  To find out what's in the SYSTEM folder, say ``cd system''
after the prompt, so your screen looks like this:
C:\WINDOWS>cd system
That makes the computer think about the SYSTEM folder inside the
WINDOWS folder, so the computer changes the prompt to this:
C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM>
Then if you say ``dir'', the computer will print a directory of
the files in the WINDOWS SYSTEM folder.
                             Parents When a folder is inside
another folder, the situation resembles a pregnant woman: the
inner folder is called the child; the outer folder is called the
mommy (or parent). For example, the SYSTEM folder is the child of
the WINDOWS folder.
                             When you finish using the SYSTEM
folder, you have a choice. If you say ``cd ..'', those two
periods make computer return to the mommy folder (WINDOWS) and
say:
C:\WINDOWS>
If instead you say ``cd \'', the backslash makes the computer
return to the root directory and say:
C:\>
                             Saying ``cd ..'' is therefore called
``returning to mommy''. Saying ``cd \'' is called ``returning to
your roots''. Whenever you feel lost and scared, return to mommy
or your roots!
                             Pointer files Socrates warned,
``Know thyself.'' Freud warned, ``Be prepared to tell me about
your mother.''
                             To obey their warnings, each folder
contains a Socrates file and a Freud file. The Socrates file,
called ``.'', reminds the folder of what files are in the folder.
The Freud file, called ``..'', reminds the folder of who the
folder's mother is, so the computer will know what to do when you
type ``cd ..''.
                             That's why, when you're in the
middle of a folder and say ``dir'', the first two files you see
in the directory are called ``.'' and ``..''. They're called
pointer files because they point to the folder's inner self and
mommy.
                             Short cut Suppose the computer says:
C:\DOS>
That means the computer is thinking about the DOS folder. To make
the computer think about the WINDOWS SYSTEM folder instead, you
can use two methods.
                             The normal method is to say ``cd \''
(which makes the computer leave the DOS folder and return to the
standard C prompt), then say ``cd windows'', then say ``cd
system''.
                             The shorter method is to combine all
those cd commands into this single command: ``cd
\windows\system''. In that command, make sure you type the
backslashes.
                             Backslash versus forward slash Don't
confuse the backslash (\) with a forward slash (/).
Type a backslash (\) when you're discussing folders, such as ``cd
\windows\system''.
Type a forward slash (/) when you're giving switches, such as
``dir /p'' or ``dir /w''.


          EXTERNAL COMMANDS
  So far, you've learned 7 major commands: ver, echo, cls, date,
time, dir, and cd. How does the computer understand them?
  When you turn on the computer, the computer automatically runs
a program called ``COMMAND.COM'', which teaches the computer how
to react to those commands. Since the definitions of those
commands are stored inside COMMAND.COM, those commands are called
internal commands.
  Now you're going to learn 3 fancy commands whose definitions
are too long to fit in COMMAND.COM. The 3 fancy commands are
``format'' (which puts a format onto a disk), ``diskcopy'' (which
makes a copy of a disk), and ``chkdsk'' (which checks your disk).
Don't type them until I fully explain how to use them.
  The definition of ``format'' is in a file called
``FORMAT.COM''. The definition of ``diskcopy'' is in a file
called ``DISKCOPY.COM''. The definition of ``chkdsk'' is in a
file that classic DOS calls ``CHKDSK.COM'' but modern DOS calls
``CHKDSK.EXE''.
  Since the definitions of ``format'', ``diskcopy'', and
``chkdsk'' lie outside of COMMAND.COM, those 3 commands are
called external commands.
  When you give one of those external commands, the computer
tries to obey the command by running the FORMAT.COM program,
DISKCOPY.COM program, CHKDSK.COM program, or CHKDSK.EXE program.
  If your computer is set up normally, those programs are in
drive C's DOS folder. In that case, if you say ___
C:\>dir dos /p
you'll see that the DOS directory includes FORMAT.COM,
DISKCOPY.COM, and CHKDSK.EXE (or CHKDSK.COM).
  But alas, your computer might be set up abnormally. Those
programs might be in the root directory instead of in a DOS
subdirectory. Those programs might be in a subdirectory which,
instead of being called ``DOS'', is called ``BIN'' or ``UTIL''.
Those programs might be on a drive D instead of C. If your
computer doesn't have a hard disk, those programs might be on one
of the DOS floppy disks instead.
  Where are those programs in your computer? Find out now! Say
___
C:\>dir dos /p
If you see that the DOS directory includes FORMAT.COM,
DISKCOPY.COM, and CHKDSK.EXE (or CHKDSK.COM), you're lucky. If
you're unlucky, explore other directories (by saying `` dir /p''
or  ``dir bin /p'' or ``dir util /p'' or ``dir d: /p'' or ``dir
a: /p''), until you find the directory that contains those
external DOS programs.
                                                Check disk (chkdsk)
                                         To check your computer's
disk and RAM, type ``chkdsk''. Try it now!
                                         If your computer is set
up properly, it has a feature called path to DOS, so you can type
``chkdsk'' after any prompt, so your screen looks like this ___
C:\>chkdsk
or like this ___
C:\DOS>chkdsk
or like this ___
C:\WINDOWS>chkdsk
or even like this ___
C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM>chkdsk
Then the computer will print a message saying how many bytes are
in your hard drive and your RAM.
                                         Example For example,
when I say ``chkdsk'' on my computer, the computer prints this
message:
  212,058,112 bytes total disk space
       81,920 bytes in 2 hidden files
      389,120 bytes in 85 directories
  190,115,840 bytes in 3,324 user files
       45,056 bytes in bad sectors
   21,426,176 bytes available on disk

        4,096 bytes in each allocation unit
       51,772 total allocation units on disk
        5,231 available allocation units on disk

      655,360 total bytes memory
      634,464 bytes free
                                         The top line says the
hard disk is big enough to hold 212,058,112 bytes altogether.
That's about 212 million bytes. Since a million bytes is about
the same as a megabyte, that's about 200 megabytes.
                                         The next line says
81,920 bytes are in the 2 hidden files (IO.SYS and MSDOS.SYS).
                                         The next line says the
disk contains 85 folders (subdirectories). For each folder, the
computer must store the folder's name and a list of which files
are in the folder. Altogether, those 85 folder names and 85
folder lists consume 389,120 bytes.
                                         The disk contains 3,324
user files. (Those are the files that aren't hidden and aren't
names of folders.) Some of those files are in the root directory
and can be seen when you type ``dir''; the rest of those files
are buried in folders. Altogether, those 3,324 user files consume
190,115,840 bytes.
                                         It's difficult to
manufacture a flawless hard disk. Most hard disks contain some
unreliable areas, which are called bad sectors. According to the
``chkdsk'' command, my computer knows that 45,056 bytes on the
hard disk's surface are in bad sectors. Since the computer knows
that those sectors are bad, the computer won't put any data
there, and those bad sectors won't do any harm.
                                         The typical hard drive
contains fewer than 200,000 bytes in bad sectors. The typical
floppy disk has no bad sectors at all.
                                         (If your hard disk
contains more than 200,000 bytes in bad sectors, or the number of
bytes in bad sectors increases rapidly each month, return the
disk to your dealer for repair or replacement. If a floppy disk
contains any bad sectors at all, buy a different floppy disk
instead, since nearby sectors might be partly unreliable, and
discount dealers sell new floppy disks for less than $1.)
                                         Although the top line
says my hard disk is big enough to hold about 212 million bytes,
the lines below show that most of those bytes are used for the 2
hidden files, the 85 folders,
the 3,324 user files, and bad sectors. Just 21,426,176 bytes
remain unused; they're available for any additional files we want
to put on the disk.
  Each file consists of several clusters on the disk's surface.
The next line says that each cluster (allocation unit) consists
of 4,096 bytes (which is 4 kilobytes). The next lines say that
altogether the disk holds 51,772 clusters, of which 5,231 remain
unused.
  The bottom two lines discuss the RAM chips, not the hard disk.
They say that the RAM chips contain 655,360 bytes (640 kilobytes)
of conventional memory. Some of those bytes are used by DOS
itself; 634,464 bytes remain unused; they're available for any
program we wish to run.
  Actually, I bought more RAM chips ___ 4 megabytes altogether!
But just 640K of them are used for conventional memory. The rest
of them are used for extended and expanded memory, which the
``chkdsk'' command doesn't analyze.
  Even if you buy many megabytes of RAM, the largest RAM quantity
that the ``chkdsk'' command will ever mention is 655,360 bytes,
because 655,360 bytes is the largest size that conventional RAM
can be.
  No hard disk? If you're using an early version of DOS and your
computer doesn't have a hard disk, here's what to do. . . .
  Grab the floppy disk that contains CHKDSK.COM. (If you're using
DOS version 1, 2 or 3, grab the main DOS floppy disk. If you're
using DOS version 4, grab Operating Disk 1.)
  Put that disk into drive A. After the A prompt, say ``chkdsk''.
  Bad command When you say ``chkdsk'', the computer might say:
Bad command or file name
That means the computer can't find the CHKDSK program. To solve
that problem, examine your spelling: maybe you spelled ``chkdsk''
incorrectly?
  If you don't have a hard disk, maybe you inserted the wrong
floppy disk?
  If you have a hard disk and spelled ``chkdsk'' correctly, maybe
your computer is set up incorrectly. To handle such a computer,
remind the computer that the ``chkdsk'' command is in the DOS
subdirectory (by typing ``\dos\chkdsk'' instead of just
``chkdsk'').
  If you don't have a DOS subdirectory but instead have a
subdirectory called BIN, try typing ``\bin\chkdsk''. If instead
you have a subdirectory called UTIL, try typing ``\util\chkdsk''.
  Different drives If you say ``chkdsk'' after the C prompt, the
computer will check the disk in drive C.
  To check the disk in drive A, say ``chkdsk a:''. To check disk
B, say ``chkdsk b:''.
  Lost chains If you accidentally turn off the computer while the
computer is in the middle of thinking about a file, the computer
might get confused and forget the file's name and which folder
the file belongs to. Such a file, whose identity has been lost,
is called a lost chain.
  When you say ``chkdsk'', the computer checks whether your disk
contains any lost chains. If the computer notices a lost chain,
the computer will say ``errors'' and might ask:
Convert lost chains to files?
To reply, press the N key.
                                         Fix If you say
``chkdsk'' and the computer notices errors on your disk (such as
lost chains), the computer tells you about the errors but doesn't
fix them.
                                         To fix the errors, say
``chkdsk'' again but put ``/f'' at the end of the command, like
this:
C:\>chkdsk /f
The ``/f'' makes the computer fix minor errors (such as lost
chains).
                                         If you're using DOS 6.2,
the computer says:
Instead of using CHKDSK /F, try using SCANDISK.
Do you still want to run CHKDSK /F (Y/N)?
To reply, press Y then ENTER.
                                         If the computer asks
``Convert lost chains to files?'' again, press the N key again.
This time, the computer will get rid of the ``lost chains''
problem by erasing those chains.
                                         (Almost always, the
chains contain fragments of old junk that you want erased. If you
press Y instead of N, the computer will turn those chains into
files instead of erasing them. The files will be named
``FILE0000.CHK'', ``FILE0001.CHK'', ``FILE0002.CHK'', etc.)
                                         If you want to check the
disk in drive A and fix it, say ``chkdsk a: /f''.

                                               Format (in every DOS)
                                            & unformat (in modern DOS)
                                         Suppose you buy a blank
floppy disk. Before you can use that disk, it must be formatted.
                                         You can buy disks that
have been formatted. If your disk has not been formatted yet, you
must format it yourself; here's how.
                                         Follow 9 steps To avoid
difficulties when formatting, follow these 9 steps. . . .
                                         Step 1: make sure the
disk is blank and a virgin, never used before. Take the disk out
of a new, unopened box of blank disks. Do not use a disk that
already contains info!
                                         Step 2: make sure the
disk is the same size as the drive you plan to put it in. If the
drive's slot is 5¼ inches long, make sure the disk is 5¼-inch. If
the drive's slot is 3½ inches long, make sure the disk is
3½-inch.
                                         Step 3: make sure the
disk is the same density as the drive. If the drive is
high-density, make sure the disk is high-density. If the drive is
double-density, make sure the disk is double-density.
                                         To find out the density
of the drive, ask your dealer (or read the ads and manuals that
came with the computer). A 5¼-inch drive holds 360K if
double-density, 1.2M if high-density. A 3½-inch drive holds 720K
if double-density, 1.44M if high-density. In a typical 8088
computer, the drives are double-density. In a typical 386, 486,
or Pentium computer, the drives are high-density. In a typical
286 computer, drive A is high-density; drive B is either a
double-density 5¼-inch or a high-density 3½-inch.
                                         To find out the density
of the disk, read the disk's label and the box that the disk came
in. ``HD'' means high-density; ``DD'' means double-density. The
typical high-density 3½-inch disk has ``HD'' stamped on it and
has square cutouts in two of the disk's corners (instead of just
one corner). The typical double-density 5¼-inch disk is made of
magnetic material that's brownish-gray (instead of charcoal gray)
and has its central hole reinforced by a Mylar ring.
  Step 4: temporarily empty the drives. If you have a hard drive,
remove any floppies from the floppy drives. If you do not have a
hard drive, put into drive A the DOS disk containing FORMAT.COM.
  Step 5: get the standard prompt onto the screen. If you have a
hard disk, make the computer say ``C:\>''. If you do not have a
hard disk, make the computer say ``A:\>'' (or ``A>'').
  Step 6: say ``format a:'' or ``format b:'' (and press ENTER at
the end of that line). If you're planning to put the blank disk
into drive A, say ``format a:''. If you're planning to put the
blank disk into drive B, say ``format b:''. Be sure to say
``format a:'' or ``format b:'' rather than just ``format''.
  Then if you're lucky, the computer will say:
Insert new diskette
and press ENTER when ready
  (If instead the computer says ``Bad command or file name'',
remind the computer which folder FORMAT.COM is in. For example,
if FORMAT.COM is in a folder called DOS, say ``\dos\format a:'';
if FORMAT.COM is in a folder called BIN, say ``\bin\format a:''.)
  Step 7: put the blank disk into the drive. If you said ``format
a:'', put the blank disk into drive A (after removing any disk
that's already in drive A). If you said ``format b:'', put the
blank disk into drive B.
  If the disk is 5¼-inch, close the drive's door.
  Step 8: press the ENTER key. If you're lucky, the computer will
say ``Formatting''; then it will format the blank disk.
  The formatting takes about a minute. During that time, the
computer divides the disk's surface into tracks and sectors,
checks the disk's surface for flaws, and puts these 4 items onto
the disk: the boot record, the directory, and 2 copies of the
file allocation table (FAT). When the formatting is finished, the
computer will say ``Format complete''.
  (If the computer gripes, try again to do those eight steps
correctly!)
  Step 9: answer questions. If you're using modern DOS or DOS 4,
the computer will ask:
Volume label (11 characters, ENTER for none)?
Then you can invent a name for the disk. Keep the name short: no
more than 11 characters. Type the name, then press the ENTER key.
(If you're too lazy to invent a name, press ENTER without typing
a name.) Then in the future, whenever you ask the computer to
print the disk's directory, the computer will automatically print
the disk's name at the top of the directory.
  At the end of the whole formatting procedure, the computer will
ask:
Format another (Y/N)?
If you want to format another blank disk, press the Y key (which
means ``Yes''); otherwise, press the N key (which means ``No'').
Then press ENTER.
                                         Mistakes When giving the
format command, what happens if you make a mistake?
                                         Make sure the disk
you're formatting was blank. If it wasn't blank, the computer
will automatically make it blank, by destroying the information
on it!
                                         Make sure you say which
drive to format. To format the disk in drive A, say ``format
a:''. To format the disk in drive B, say ``format b:''.
                                         If you forget to say
``a:'' or ``b:'' after the word ``format'', the computer gets
nasty. Modern DOS and DOS 4 make the computer print this gripe:
Required parameter missing
DOS 3.2 & 3.3 make the computer print this gripe instead:
Drive letter must be specified
If you're using an even older version of DOS, the computer won't
gripe. Instead, it will format whatever disk is in the default
drive, which might not be the drive you intended! For example, if
the default drive is C, the computer will format drive C's hard
disk, and so it will erase the information on your hard disk!
                                         Format the whole box If
you buy a box of unformatted blank disks, format all the disks in
the box immediately. Avoid giving the format command again ___
until you buy your next box of unformatted blank disks.
                                         Unformat (in modern DOS)
Suppose you accidentally format a disk that contained some
important files. When the formatting is done, the files seem to
be gone.
                                         But if you're using
modern DOS, you can get the files back! Just tell the computer to
unformat the disk. For example, to unformat the disk in drive A,
say ``unformat a:''. The computer will say, ``Press ENTER when
ready.'' Press ENTER. The computer will ask, ``Are you sure?''
Press Y. Then the computer will unformat the disk. Afterwards, if
you say ``dir a:'', you'll see that the files are still there!
                                         Unconditional format
(modern DOS) Modern DOS lets you say ``/u'' at the end of the
format command, like this: ``format a: /u''. That formats the
disk faster, so you don't have to wait long for the formatting to
finish. The ``/u'' also reduces the chance that the computer will
gripe at you. When I want modern DOS to format a disk, I usually
say ``/u''.
                                         The only disadvantage of
saying ``format a: /u'' is that the disk cannot be unformatted.
The ``/u'' tells the computer to format unconditionally and not
waste time worrying about the possibility that you might change
your mind and want to unformat. Saying ``/u'' means you're
confident and demand quick results.
                                         Quick format (in modern
DOS) Suppose a disk in drive A has been formatted and contains
files, but you no longer need those files. To erase all the files
on the disk, you can just reformat the disk by again saying
``format a:''.
                                         Unfortunately, saying
``format a:'' makes you wait about a minute, while the computer
erases the files and divides the disk's surface into tracks and
sectors again.
                                         Modern DOS lets you
reformat faster by saying ``format a: /q/u''. The ``/q'' tells
the computer to reformat quickly, by erasing the files but not
bothering to redivide the disk's surface into tracks and sectors;
the computer will reuse the tracks and sectors. The ``/u'' tells
the computer to reformat unconditionally, without preparing for
the possibility of an unformat. The computer accomplishes
``format a: /q/u'' in just a few seconds.
  Double-density format (DOS 3 & up) Suppose you buy a
double-density disk and want to format it. The most reliable way
to format it is to use a double-density drive.
  But suppose you don't have any double-density drives. Try a
trick: stick the double-density disk into a high-density drive,
and give one of the trick format commands listed below.
  These tricks work well if the disk is 3½-inch. If the disk is
5¼-inch, these tricks are less reliable, but you're welcome to
try them anyway.
  Here are the tricks for trying to format a double-density disk
in high-density drive A. . . .
  Modern DOS and DOS 4 let you do this:
If the disk is 3½-inch, say ``format a: /f:720'', which means
format for 720K.
If the disk is 5¼-inch, say ``format a: /f:360'', which means
format for 360K.
  To make modern DOS finish the format faster and with less
chance of the computer griping, put ``/u'' at the end of the
command:
If the disk is 3½-inch, say ``format a: /f:720 /u''.
If the disk is 5¼-inch, say ``format a: /f:360 /u''.
  DOS 3.3 doesn't understand ``/f:''. Do this instead:
If disk is 3½-inch, say ``format a: /n:9''. The ``/n:9'' means 9
sectors per track.
If disk is 5¼-inch, say ``format a: /4''. The ``/4'' means 40
tracks.
  Those are the commands to format a double-density disk in a
high-density drive.
  DOS 3, 3.1, and 3.2 can't handle high-density 3½-inch drives
but use the same command as DOS 3.3 for handling high-density
5¼-inch drives. DOS 1, 1.1, 2, and 2.1 can't handle high-density
drives at all.

              Diskcopy
  To copy a floppy disk, give the ``diskcopy'' command. It copies
info from one floppy disk (called the source) to a blank floppy
(called the target). It copies the entire disk, so that at the
end of the process the target disk will become an exact clone of
the source disk.
  Follow 7 steps To avoid difficulties when copying disks, follow
these 7 steps. . . .
  Step 1: choose a source disk. Decide which disk you want to
copy. It must be a floppy disk, since the ``diskcopy'' command
copies just floppy disks, not hard disks.
  Step 2: choose a target disk. It should be blank and a virgin,
never used before. It must be the same type of disk as the source
disk: specifically, it must be floppy, and it must be the same
size and density as the source disk. For example, if the source
disk is 5¼-inch, the target disk must be 5¼-inch (not 3½-inch);
if the source disk is double-density, the target disk must be
double-density (not high-density).
  Step 3: temporarily empty the drives. If you have a hard drive,
remove any floppies from the drives. If you do not have a hard
drive, put into drive A the DOS disk containing DISKCOPY.COM.
  Step 4: get the standard prompt onto the screen. If you have a
hard disk, make the computer say ``C:\>''. If you do not have a
hard disk, make the computer say ``A:\>'' (or ``A>'').
  Step 5: say ``diskcopy a: b:'' or ``diskcopy a: a:'' or
``diskcopy b: b:'' (and press ENTER at end of that line). If the
source disk can be read by both drive A and drive B, say
``diskcopy a: b:''. If the source disk can be read by drive A but
not by drive B, say ``diskcopy a: a:''. If the source disk can be
read by drive B but not by drive A, say ``diskcopy b: b:''.
                                         Confused? Use this
chart:
Source disk                                      Drive ADrive
BWhat to type
1.44M                                            1.44M 1.44M
diskcopy a: b:
1.44M                                            1.44M not
1.44Mdiskcopy a: a:
1.44M                                            not
1.44M1.44Mdiskcopy b: b:

1.2M                                             1.2M  1.2M
diskcopy a: b:
1.2M                                             1.2M  not
1.2Mdiskcopy a: b:
1.2M                                             not
1.2M1.2Mdiskcopy a: b:

360K
5¼-inch5¼-inchdiskcopy a: b:
360K                                             5¼-inchnot
5¼-inch
diskcopy a: a:
360K                                             not
5¼-inch5¼-inch
diskcopy b: b:

720K
3½-inch3½-inchdiskcopy a: b:
720K                                             3½-inchnot
3½-inch
diskcopy a: a:
720K                                             not
3½-inch3½-inch
diskcopy b: b:
                                         Then if you're lucky,
the computer will say, ``Insert SOURCE disk''.
                                         (If instead the computer
says ``Bad command or file name'', remind the computer which
folder DISKCOPY.COM is in. For example, if DISKCOPY.COM is in a
folder called DOS, give a command such as ``\dos\diskcopy a:
b:''.)
                                         Step 6: insert the
appropriate disks and press ENTER. Here are the details. . . .
What you said                                    What to do now
diskcopy a: b:                                   Put the source
disk into drive A.
                                                 Put the target
disk into drive B.
                                                 Press ENTER.
                                                 Wait until the
computer asks ``Copy another''?

diskcopy a: a:                                   Put the source
disk into drive A.
                                                 Press ENTER.
                                                 When computer
says so, put target disk in drive A.
                                                 Press ENTER.
                                                 When computer
says so, put source disk into drive A.
                                                 Press ENTER.
                                                 Continue
swapping the source and target disks,
                                                 until the
computer asks ``Copy another''?

diskcopy b: b:                                   Put the source
disk into drive B.
                                                 Press ENTER.
                                                 When computer
says so, put target disk into drive B.
                                                 Press ENTER.
                                                 When computer
says so, put source disk into drive B.
                                                 Press ENTER.
                                                 Continue
swapping the source and target disks,
                                                 until the
computer asks ``Copy another''?
                                         During this step, the
computer copies info from the source disk to the RAM chips, and
then from the RAM chips to the target disk. If the target disk
wasn't formatted previously, the computer formats it
automatically while doing this step.
                                         Step 7: press Y or N. If
you want to copy another disk, press the Y key (which means
``Yes''); otherwise, press the N key (which means ``No'').
                                         Copy DOS When you buy a
new computer, the first thing you should do is copy the main DOS
disk, by saying ``diskcopy a: b:'' (or ``diskcopy a: a:''). Then
use the copy. Store the original disk in a safe place ___ so that
if the copy ever gets accidentally damaged, you can go back to
the original.
                                         You should also copy the
other DOS disks and any other important software you bought.
                                         Copy protection Although
the ``diskcopy'' command usually works, sometimes it doesn't! The
computer might refuse to copy a disk!
                                         That happens if the
disk's programs were written by programmers who fear you'll give
copies of the disk to all your friends without paying royalties.
Those programmers alter the disk, to prevent ``diskcopy'' from
working.
                                         A disk altered to
prevent the ``diskcopy'' command from working is said to be a
copy-protected disk.

           EDIT YOUR DISKS
  Here's how to edit the info on your disks. I'll assume you have
a hard drive.
  (If you don't have a hard drive, put a formatted floppy disk in
drive B and use that instead of drive C. If you don't have a hard
drive and don't have a drive B, use drive A ___ or better yet,
practice these commands on somebody else's computer!)

         Make directory (md)
  Let's create a new folder on your hard disk.
  First, get a standard C prompt, so your screen looks like this:
C:\>
  Then invent a name for your folder. The name can be up to 8
characters long, such as SARAH or TONY or JUNK or POETRY or
FIDDLING. Type ``md'' then the name.
  For example, to Make a Directory called SARAH, say ``md sarah''
after the C prompt, like this:
C:\>md sarah
At the end of that line, press the ENTER key. The computer will
pause briefly, while it creates a SARAH directory. (If the
computer says ``Directory already exists'' or ``Unable to create
directory'', your disk already contained something called SARAH,
and you must pick a different name instead.)
  Then the computer will say ``C:\>'' again, so you can give
another DOS command.
  To prove that the SARAH directory was created, say ``dir
sarah''. The computer will show that SARAH contains two files:
Socrates (.) and Freud (..).
  Go ahead! Create a folder named SARAH and other folders!
  Cd Suppose you've created a SARAH folder. If you wish, you can
go into the SARAH folder by saying ``cd sarah'', which means
``Change Directory to SARAH''. That makes the computer say:
C:\SARAH>
Then if you say ``dir'', the computer will show you the SARAH
directory's two files. To return to the root directory, say ``cd
\''.

                Copy
  The Jewish religion prohibits Orthodox Jews from eating ham.
That's why Mary had a little lamb:
Mary had a little lamb,
'Cause Jewish girls can't eat no ham.
If Mary were a Hindu now,
Mary couldn't eat no cow.
Religions all are fine and dandy,
Even my dentist's, which says "No candy!"
But Ma's religion makes me shiver.
That's why mine says "Ma, no liver!"
  Copy from console Here's how to put that poem onto your hard
disk and call it MARY.
  First, type ``copy con mary'' after the C prompt, like this:
C:\>copy con mary
  (If your hard disk already contains a file named MARY, DOS 6.2
makes the computer ask, ``Overwrite MARY?'' To reply, press the Y
key then ENTER.)
  Underneath that typing, type the poem. (If you don't like that
poem, make up your own! If you're a slow typist, make up a poem
that's shorter to type, or type just the first two lines.)
                                         Underneath your poem,
press the F6 key and then the ENTER key. The computer will
automatically copy your poem onto the hard disk and call it MARY.
                                         To prove that your
computer put the poem onto the disk, look at the hard disk's
directory, by typing ``dir /p''. You'll see that one of the files
in the directory is MARY.
                                         Your computer's console
consists of the keyboard and screen. Saying ``copy con mary''
tells the computer that you want to copy from the console
(keyboard and screen) to a disk file named MARY.
                                         Copy to console Suppose
your disk contains a file called MARY. To find out what's in
MARY, say ``copy mary con''. That makes the computer copy MARY
from the disk to your console's screen. For example, if MARY was
a poem, the poem will appear on your screen.
                                         Filenames You can give a
file any short name you wish, such as MARY or LAMBCHOP. Keep the
filename short: you can't make it longer than 8 characters.
                                         At the end of the
filename, you can put a period and a 3-character extension.
                                         For example, you can
name a file ``LAMBCHOP.YUM''. In that example, the ``LAMBCHOP''
is called the filename; the ``YUM'' is called the extension.
                                         Copy to floppy After
you've created a file named MARY on your hard disk, you can copy
MARY to a floppy disk. Here's how.
                                         If drive A contains a
formatted floppy disk, you can copy MARY to drive A's disk by
saying ``copy mary a:''. Try it!
                                         (If the computer gripes
by saying ``Write protect error'', your floppy disk is a special
kind that can't be written on. To reply, press the A key, which
means ``Abort'', then try using a different floppy disk instead.)
                                         To prove that MARY's
been copied to drive A, make the computer print the directory of
drive A, by saying ``dir a:''.
                                         To copy MARY from the
hard drive to drive B, say ``copy mary b:''.
                                         Suppose you've put MARY
on a floppy disk in drive A and want to copy MARY from that
floppy disk to a disk in drive B. Make the computer say ``A:\>'',
then say ``copy mary b:''.
                                         Suppose MARY's on a
floppy disk in drive A and you want to copy MARY to another
floppy disk, but you don't have a drive B. Even though you don't
have a drive B, you can say ``copy mary b:''. The computer will
pretend your single floppy drive is both A and B; the computer
will tell you when to remove disk A from the drive and insert
disk B instead.
                                         Copy to folder Suppose
MARY is on a floppy disk in drive A, and your hard disk contains
a folder called SARAH. Here's how to copy MARY to the SARAH
folder. At the standard C prompt, say ``copy a:mary sarah'', so
your screen looks like this:
C:\>copy a:mary sarah
That tells the computer to copy drive A's MARY to the SARAH
folder. (When giving that command, do not put a space after the
``a:''.)
                                         Here's another way to
copy drive A's MARY file to the hard disk's SARAH folder. First,
get into the SARAH folder by saying ``cd sarah''. That makes the
computer say:
C:\SARAH>
Then tell the computer to copy drive A's MARY by saying ``copy
a:mary'', so your screen looks like this:
C:\SARAH>copy a:mary
(When giving that command, do not put a space after the ``a:''.)
  Many ways to copy Here's a list of the many ways to copy a
file.
Goal                            What to say
copy from the keyboard to a hard-disk file called MARYC:\>copy
con mary
copy MARY from the hard disk to your screenC:\>copy mary con

copy MARY from the hard disk to drive AC:\>copy mary a:
copy MARY from the hard disk to drive BC:\>copy mary b:

copy MARY from drive A to drive BA:\>copy mary b:

copy MARY from drive A (to the hard disk)C:\>copy a:mary

copy MARY from drive A to the hard disk's SARAH folderC:\>copy
a:mary sarah                                    or
sayC:\SARAH>copy a:mary
copy everything from drive A to the hard disk's SARAH
folderC:\>copy a:*.* sarah                      or
sayC:\SARAH>copy a:*.*

copy everything from the SARAH folder to drive AC:\>copy sarah
a:or say                                            C:\SARAH>copy
*.* a:
copy MARY from the SARAH folder to drive AC:\>copy sarah\mary
a:or say                                            C:\SARAH>copy
mary a:

copy everything from the SARAH folder to the TONY folderC:\>copy
sarah tony                                      or
sayC:\SARAH>copy *.* \tony
copy MARY from the SARAH folder to the TONY folderC:\>copy
sarah\mary tony                                 or
sayC:\SARAH>copy mary \tony

make a copy of MARY, but call the copy ``SUE''C:\>copy mary sue
  Copy entire floppy to another floppy Suppose drive A's floppy
disk contains important info, and you want to copy all that info
to another disk.
  If possible, use the ``diskcopy'' command, by saying ``diskcopy
a: b:'' or ``diskcopy a: a:''. That makes an exact copy of the
entire disk. Unfortunately, the ``diskcopy'' command can't handle
hard disks, and it requires that the target disk be exactly the
same size and density as the source disk.
  An alternative way to copy all files from drive A to drive B is
to say:
A:\>copy *.* b:
That tells the computer to copy files from drive A to drive B.
But that ``copy'' command does not copy the hidden files (IO.SYS
and MSDOS.SYS), does not copy folders, and does not copy any
files buried in folders. It copies just the visible simple files
listed in the root directory. And before giving that ``copy''
command you must make sure drive B's disk has been formatted.
  Copy entire floppy to the hard disk To copy all files from
drive A to the hard disk, you can use several methods.
  One method is to make a hard-disk folder, such as SARAH, by
saying:
C:\>md sarah
Then copy files from drive A to that folder by saying:
C:\>copy a:*.* sarah
That copies just the simple files that are visible in drive A's
root directory.
  When giving that command, make sure you mention a hard-disk
folder such as SARAH. Do not just say ``copy a:*.*'' without
mentioning SARAH. If you make the mistake of saying just ``copy
a:*.*'', the computer will copy drive A's files to your hard
directory's root directory, where they'll destroy any hard disk
files that have similar names.
  For example, if drive A contains a file called ``AUTOEXEC.BAT''
and you make the mistake of saying ``copy a:*.*'', that file will
be copied to your hard disk's root directory and destroy the
AUTOEXEC.BAT file that was on your hard disk previously. Then
your hard disk won't work properly, and you'll phone me with
tears in your eyes about how you wrecked your hard disk. People
from all over the world phone me with that problem every week.
  Spare me the agony: remember to never say just ``copy a:*.*''.
Instead, always mention a folder, such as ``copy a:*.* sarah''.
  When you buy a program, you usually get an instruction manual
and a set of floppy disks. Read the instruction manual ___
especially the part entitled ``Getting started'' or
``Installation''. It tells you the programmer's opinion of the
best way to copy the floppy disks onto your hard disk.
  Instead of having you create a folder such as SARAH and then
having you say ``copy a:*.* sarah'', the instruction manual
usually tells you to put the first floppy disk into drive A and
then type ``a:install'' or ``a:setup''. When you type that
command, the computer starts running a program called
``INSTALL.EXE'' or ``SETUP.EXE'' on the first floppy disk. That
program automatically creates a folder on your hard disk and
copies files to that folder from the floppy disk. Then the
program makes the computer tell you to insert the other floppy
disks, and the program automatically copies files from those
disks to your hard disk's folder.
  During that process, the program asks you questions about what
kind of computer equipment you bought and what your desires are.
The program copies
just the files that are relevant to your needs and desires; it
also edits those files to meet your needs more closely.

                                                             Type
                                                     Suppose
you've put on your hard disk a file called MARY containing a
poem. To see the poem on your screen, you can tell the computer
to copy MARY to the console's screen, by saying ``copy mary
con''. An even easier way to copy MARY to the screen is to say
just ``type mary''.
                                                     Experiment!
See what's in your hard disk's ``AUTOEXEC.BAT'' file by saying
``type autoexec.bat'', like this:
C:\>type autoexec.bat
See what's in your hard disk's ``CONFIG.SYS'' file by saying:
C:\>type config.sys
                                                     Which files
are ASCII MARY, AUTOEXEC.BAT, and CONFIG.SYS all contain words
and numbers that you can read on the screen. Other files are
weirder. For example, if you say ``type command.com'', you'll see
strange symbols instead of words and numbers.
                                                     Files such
as MARY, AUTOEXEC.BAT, and CONFIG.SYS, which all contain words
and numbers you can read, are called ASCII files (pronounced
``ass key files''). The COMMAND.COM file contains special symbols
and is therefore not an ASCII file.
                                                     If somebody
says, ``Give me an ASCII file'', that person wants to be given a
floppy disk that contains an ASCII file, which is a file that the
person can read by giving the ``type'' command.
                                                     Files that
end in .BAT are always ASCII files. Files ending in .COM and .EXE
are never ASCII files. Files ending in .TXT are usually ASCII
files.
                                                     Congratulati
ons! You've learned all the essentials of DOS! If you're in a
rush, you may skip ahead to other chapters. If you keep reading
here, you'll become a DOS expert!
            Rename (ren)
  Suppose a file is named MARY. To change that file's name to
LAMBCHOP, say ``rename mary lambchop''.
  Before giving that command, make sure the computer has given
you the right prompt. For example, if MARY is on drive A, change
the name to LAMBCHOP by saying:
A:\>rename mary lambchop
If MARY is in the hard drive's SARAH folder, change the name MARY
to LAMBCHOP by saying:
C:\SARAH>rename mary lambchop
  Instead of typing the word ``rename'', you can type just
``ren'', like this: ``ren mary lambchop''.
  By saying ``rename'' (or ``ren''), you can rename a simple file
(such as MARY), but you cannot rename a folder. For example, if
you have a folder named SARAH, you cannot change SARAH to TONY by
saying ``rename''.

            Delete (del)
  Suppose a file is named MARY. To delete that file from the
disk, say ``del mary''.
  Before giving that command, make sure the computer has given
you the right prompt. For example, if MARY is on drive A, delete
MARY by saying:
A:\>del mary
If MARY is in the hard drive's SARAH folder, delete MARY by
saying:
C:\SARAH>del mary
  Delete all files To delete all files from the SARAH folder,
say:
C:\>del sarah
  The computer will ask, ``Are you sure?'' To reply, press the Y
key (which means Yes) and then ENTER.
   Then the computer will delete all files from the SARAH folder
___ except for Socrates (.), Freud (..), any hidden files, and
any folders that are inside the SARAH folder.
  To delete all files from drive A, say:
A:\>del *.*
When the computer asks ``Are you sure?'', press Y then ENTER.
Then the computer will delete all files from drive A ___ except
for hidden files and folders.

        Move (in DOS 6 & 6.2)
  DOS 6 & 6.2 let you say ``move''. The word ``move'' serves two
purposes. . . .
  Purpose 1: move a file For example, suppose MARY is a file on
the hard disk, and you want to move MARY to drive A. Just say:
C:\>move mary a:
That copies MARY from the hard disk to drive A and then deletes
MARY from the hard disk.
  Saying ``move mary a:'' has the same effect as saying ``copy
mary a:'' and then ``del mary''. So ``move'' means ``make a copy
and then destroy the original''.
  Purpose 2: rename a folder If SARAH is a folder and you want to
change its name to TONY, say ``move sarah tony'', like this:
C:\>move sarah tony

                                               Remove directory (rd)
                                         Suppose your hard disk
contains a folder named SARAH. Here's how to remove that folder
from the hard disk.
                                         First, delete all files
from the SARAH folder by saying:
C:\>del sarah
When the computer asks ``Are you sure?'', press the Y key and
then ENTER.
                                         Now the SARAH folder
should be empty. Finally, get rid of the SARAH folder itself, by
saying Remove the Directory SARAH:
C:\>rd sarah
                                         If you're lucky, the
computer will respond by saying just:
C:\>
That means the SARAH folder has been removed. If you're unlucky,
the computer will gripe by saying:
Invalid path, not directory,
or directory not empty
C:\>
That means the SARAH folder can't be removed yet, because the
SARAH folder isn't empty yet: it contains other folders or hidden
files. Get rid of the folders inside it, then try again to say
``rd sarah''.

                                             Deltree (in DOS 6 & 6.2)
                                         If you want to delete a
folder named SARAH, DOS 6 & 6.2 permit this shortcut: just say
``deltree sarah'', like this. . . .
C:\>deltree sarah
The computer will ask whether you're sure; press Y then ENTER.
Then the computer will delete all the files in the SARAH folder,
delete any folders in the SARAH folder, and remove the SARAH
folder itself. So the computer automatically does ``del sarah''
and ``rd sarah'' and does the same for any folders in SARAH.
                                         Saying ``deltree sarah''
is nifty, because it automatically makes the computer perform a
series of ``del'' and ``rd'' commands for you.
                                         The ``deltree sarah''
means ``delete the tree of SARAH''. It makes the computer delete
the SARAH folder and also any files or folders that have been
sprouting in SARAH.

                                               Edit (in modern DOS)
                                         To edit a file easily,
give the ``edit'' command. To give that command, you must buy
modern DOS.
                                         (If you're using a
classic DOS instead, skip ahead to the next section, which
explains how to give the ``edlin'' command instead.)
                                         Before giving the
``edit'' command, decide which file you want to edit. (For
example, suppose you want to edit a file you created called
``MARY''.)
                                         Make the computer give
you the correct prompt. (For example, if MARY is in your hard
disk's root directory, make the computer say ``C:\>''. If MARY is
in your hard disk's SARAH folder, make the computer say
``C:\SARAH>''. If MARY is in drive B, make the computer say
``B:\>''.)
                                         After that prompt, say
``edit mary''.
                                         If you're lucky, the
screen's bottom line will say ``MS-DOS Editor'', the screen's top
line will say ``File'', and the screen's second line will say
``MARY''. (If instead the computer gripes, make sure your DOS
folder contains EDIT.COM, EDIT.HLP, and QBASIC.EXE.)
  In the middle of the screen, you'll see all of MARY's lines:
Mary had a little lamb,
'Cause Jewish girls can't eat no ham.
If Mary were a Hindu now,
Mary couldn't eat no cow.
Religions all are fine and dandy,
Even my dentist's, which says "No candy!"
But Ma's religion makes me shiver.
That's why mine says "Ma, no liver!"
  NUM LOCK key In your keyboard's upper-right corner, you might
see a light marked ``Num Lock''. If that light is glowing, turn
it off by pressing the NUM LOCK key underneath it.
  Cursor On your screen, the first character (the M) is
underlined. The underline blinks. That blinking underline is
called the cursor.
  To move that cursor to the right, press the key that has a
right-arrow on it. You can move the cursor in all four
directions, by pressing the right-arrow, left-arrow, down-arrow,
and up-arrow keys. Each of those keys automatically repeats: so
to move the cursor to the right several characters, just keep
your finger on the right-arrow key a while.
  (If pressing the arrow keys makes you see numbers instead of a
moving cursor, press the NUM LOCK key.)
  To move the cursor all the way left, to the line's beginning,
press the HOME key. To move the cursor far right, to the line's
end, just past the line's last word, press the END key.
  Insert Here's how to insert extra characters anywhere in your
document. Move the cursor to where you want the extra characters
to begin. Then type the characters you want to insert. To make
room for characters you're inserting, other characters on that
line will automatically move to the right.
  To insert an extra line in your document, move the cursor to
where you want the extra line to begin. Then, while holding down
the Ctrl key, tap the N key (which means ``New line''). You'll
see a blank line.
  Delete To delete the character you just typed, press the
BACKSPACE key (which is above the ENTER key and has a left-arrow
on it).
  To delete a character you typed long ago, move the cursor to
that character, then press the DELETE key (which says ``Delete''
or ``Del'' on it). To delete a passage typed long ago, move the
cursor to the passage's beginning, then tap the DELETE key
several times (or hold down the DELETE key a while), until the
passage disappears.
  To delete an entire line, move the cursor to that line. Then,
while holding down the Ctrl key, tap the Y key (which means
``Yank the line''). The line will disappear.
  Exit When you finish editing the file, tap 4 keys:
Tap the Alt key (which means ``Menu'').
Tap the F key (which means ``File'').
Tap the X key (which means ``eXit'').
Tap the ENTER key (which means ``Yes'').
  That makes the computer exit from the editor. You see a DOS
prompt (such as ``C:\>''), so you can give another DOS command.
  Make a big boo-boo? If you make a big mistake and wish you
hadn't tried to edit MARY, tap 4 keys:
Tap the Alt key (which means ``Menu'').
Tap the F key (which means ``File'').
Tap the X key (which means ``eXit'').
Tap the N key (which means ``No'').
  That makes the computer ignore all the editing you've
done, so that MARY returns to its original state. MARY returns to
the state it was in before you started using the editor.
                                         You see a DOS prompt
(such as ``C:\>''), so you can give another DOS command.

                                           Edlin (in early DOS versions)
                                         If your DOS is classic,
edit a file by giving the ``edlin'' command. (If your DOS is
modern, don't bother reading this; skip ahead to the next topic,
``Batch Files''.)
                                         Here's how to give the
``edlin'' command.
                                         First, decide which file
you want to edit. (For example, suppose you want to edit a file
you created called ``MARY''.)
                                         Next, make the computer
give you the correct prompt. (For example, if MARY is in your
hard disk's root directory, make the computer say ``C:\>''. If
MARY is in your hard disk's SARAH folder, make the computer say
``C:\SARAH>''. If MARY is in drive B, make the computer say
``B:\>''.)
                                         After that prompt, say
``edlin mary''.
                                         If you're lucky, the
computer will say:
End of input file
(If instead the computer says ``Bad command or file name'', your
computer is set up incorrectly and can't find the EDLIN.COM
program. In that case, remind the computer where the EDLIN.COM
program is. For example, if the EDLIN.COM program is in your hard
disk's DOS folder, say ``c:\dos\edlin mary''. If the EDLIN.COM
program is in drive A, say ``a:edlin mary''.)
                                         Then the computer will
print an asterisk:
*
After the asterisk, you can type any edlin command.
                                         List For your first
edlin command, type ``lL'' after the asterisk, so your screen
looks like this:
*1L
That makes the computer print a List of MARY's lines, starting at
line 1. The computer automatically numbers the lines, so you see
this:
        1:*Mary had a little lamb,
        2: 'Cause Jewish girls can't eat no ham.
        3: If Mary were a Hindu now,
        4: Mary couldn't eat no cow.
        5: Religions all are fine and dandy,
        6: Even my dentist's, which says "No candy!"
        7: But Ma's religion makes me shiver.
        8: That's why mine says "Ma, no liver!"
                                         Underneath, the computer
prints another asterisk, so you can give another edlin command.
                                         Edit If you want to edit
line 5, type ``5'' (and then press ENTER).
                                         The computer will print
a copy of line 5, so you see this:
        5:*Religions all are fine and dandy,
Underneath, retype that line however you want it. For example,
try typing ``Religions can be wonderful and fancy,''. To save
time, instead of retyping the word ``Religions'' (which is
unchanged), just press the right-arrow key 9 times (since
``Religions'' has 9 characters).
                                         When you finish retyping
the line, press ENTER at the end of it.
                                         Delete If you want to
Delete line 6, type ``6D'' after the asterisk. That makes the
computer delete line 6 and renumber all the lines that came
underneath it.
                                         Then look at the new
version of MARY, by typing ``1L'' again.
  Insert Here's how to insert extra lines and make them become
lines 3 and 4, so that the old lines 3 and 4 become 5 and 6.
  Type ``3I'' after the asterisk. The computer will say:
        3:*
Then type whatever words you want to be in the new line 3.
  When you press the ENTER key at the end of that line, the
computer will say:
        4:*
Then type whatever words you want to be in the new line 4.
  When you press the ENTER key at the end of that line, the
computer will say:
        5:*
If you don't want to type a new line 5, say Cancel, by tapping
the C key while holding down the Ctrl key.
  Then look at the new version of MARY, by typing 1L again.
  Exit When you finish editing MARY, type ``E'' after the
asterisk. That makes the computer End the editing and Exit from
edlin. You see a DOS prompt (such as ``C:\>''), so you can give
another DOS command.
  When exiting from edlin, the computer puts two versions of MARY
onto the disk. The new, edited version is named ``MARY''. The
previous version is on the disk also, but its name has been
changed to ``MARY.BAK''.
  Make a big boo-boo? If you make a big mistake and wish you
hadn't tried to edit MARY, type ``Q'' after the asterisk. That
tells the computer to Quit.
  The computer asks ``Abort edit?'' Press Y and then ENTER.
  That makes the computer ignore all the editing you've done, so
that MARY returns to its original state. MARY returns to the
state it was in before you started using edlin.
  You see a DOS prompt (such as ``C:\>''), so you can give
another DOS command.
  Optional capitals When giving an edlin command, you do not have
to capitalize. For example, to delete line 6 you can type ``6d''
instead of ``6D''.

             BATCH FILES
                                         You can invent your own
command and make it stand for a list of other commands.
                                         For example, let's
invent a command called ``status'' that makes the computer
display a wide directory and also remind you of which DOS version
you're using. To invent that ``status'' command, just create a
file called ``STATUS.BAT'', which contains two lines, ``dir /w''
and ``ver''.
                                         To create that
STATUS.BAT file, type this ___
C:\>copy con status.bat
dir /w
ver
then press the F6 key and then the ENTER key.
                                         Afterwards, whenever you
type the word ``status'', like this ___
C:\>status
the computer will look at the file ``STATUS.BAT'' and obey the
commands you stored there: the computer will automatically do
``dir /w'' and then ``ver''.
                                         A file that's a list of
commands is called a batch file. The file ``STATUS.BAT'' is a
batch file, because it's a list of two commands (``dir /w'' and
``ver''). The name of every batch file must end in ``.BAT'',
which stands for ``batch''.

                                                     Echo off
                                         While the computer
performs a batch file, the computer prints little messages
reminding you of what it's doing. For example, while the computer
performs the ``ver'' command in ``STATUS.BAT'', the computer
prints the word ``ver'' on your screen. Each such message is
called an echo.
                                         If you don't want to see
such messages, say ``echo off'' at the beginning of your batch
file, like this:
A>copy con status.bat
echo off
dir /w
ver

                                                Clear screen (cls)
                                         Another command you can
put at the beginning of your batch file is ``cls''. That makes
the computer begin by erasing the screen, so you don't see any
distractions.
                                         Put ``cls'' just under
``echo off'', so that the computer even erases the words ``echo
off'' from the screen. Here's what the batch file looks like now:
C:\>copy con status.bat
echo off
cls
dir /w
ver

                                                       Echo
                                         Let's define ``chick'',
so that if you say ___
C:\>chick
the computer will recite this chicken riddle:
Why did the chicken cross the road?
To escape from Colonel Sanders!
                                         To define ``chick'',
type this ___
C:\>copy con chick.bat
echo off
cls
echo Why did the chicken cross the road?
echo To escape from Colonel Sanders!
then press F6 and ENTER.

     Replaceable parameter (%1)
  You can define ``greet'', so that if you say ___
C:\>greet Peter
the computer will say:
What will Peter do today?
Will Peter work, or will Peter play?
Peter needs a holiday.
Welcome, Peter! Hip, hip, hooray!
  If you say ___
C:\>greet Suzie
the computer will say:
What will Suzie do today?
Will Suzie work, or will Suzie play?
Suzie needs a holiday.
Welcome, Suzie! Hip, hip, hooray!
  If you say ___
C:\>greet Godzilla
the computer will say:
What will Godzilla do today?
Will Godzilla work, or will Godzilla play?
Godzilla needs a holiday.
Welcome, Godzilla! Hip, hip, hooray!
  To define ``greet'', type this ___
C:\>copy con greet.bat
echo off
cls
echo What will %1 do today?
echo Will %1 work, or will %1 play?
echo %1 needs a holiday.
echo Welcome, %1! Hip, hip, hooray!
then press F6 and ENTER. Make sure you type the ``%1'' in that
batch file.
  Afterwards, when you say ``greet Peter'' or ``greet Suzie'' or
``greet Godzilla'', the computer will print a greeting to Peter
or Suzie or Godzilla, by automatically substituting the person's
name for ``%1''. Try it!

     @Echo off (in DOS 3.3 & up)
  So far, you've learned two sophisticated ways to begin a batch
file.
  One way is to begin by saying:
echo off
That prevents the computer from printing echo messages.
Unfortunately, that method still leaves the words ``echo off'' on
your screen.
  The second way is to begin by saying:
echo off
cls
That flashes the words ``echo off'' on your screen, then
immediately erases those words (because ``cls'' erases the
screen). Unfortunately, ``cls'' erases all previous commands from
the screen also; that prevents you from browsing at the screen to
see what you had done previously.
  The most sophisticated way to begin a batch file is to begin by
saying:
@echo off
without saying ``cls''. (To type the symbol ``@'', tap the 2 key
while holding down the SHIFT key.) The symbol ``@'' prevents the
words ``echo off'' from appearing on your screen but still lets
you see all previous screen activity.
  The ``@echo off'' command is understood just by DOS 3.3, DOS 4,
and modern DOS.

                BOOT
                                         When you turn the
computer on, it goes through a procedure called booting. Here's
what the computer does while it's booting.

                                                       POST
                                         First, the computer
plays doctor and gives itself a checkup, to make sure all its
innards are working okay. That's called the power-on self test
(POST).
                                         Code numbers If the IBM
PC detects an illness, it prints a code number telling you where
the illness is:
Code number                                      Which part of
the computer is ill
                                            0    main power
supply (or other fundamentals)
                                            1    motherboard (or
the battery for the date & time)
                                            2    RAM chips
                                            3    keyboard
                                            4    monochrome
monitor (or its video card)
                                            5    CGA color
monitor (or its video card)
                                            6    floppy disk (or
its drive or controller)
                                            7    math coprocessor
chip (8087 or 80287 chip)
                                            9    LPT1 parallel
port (to attach the printer to)
                                           11    COM1 serial port
(to attach a modem or mouse)
                                           12    COM2 serial port
(to attach a modem or mouse)
                                           13    joystick (or
other device attached to game port)
                                           14    printer
                                           17    hard disk (or
its drive or controller)
                                           24    EGA color
monitor (or its video card)
                                         After printing the code
number, it prints a two-digit number, which is usually 01. For
example, the computer usually prints 301 if the keyboard is
broken (or not plugged into the system unit, or plugged in
loosely, or has an XT-AT switch in the wrong position). The
computer usually prints 1701 if the hard disk is broken (or the
hard disk's controller is broken or the hard disk's cable to the
controller is loose).
                                         Although the IBM PC
prints those code numbers, modern clones print English words
instead. For example, if a modern clone detects that the keyboard
is broken, the clone says ``Keyboard error'' or ``Keyboard
failure'' or ``No scancode from keyboard'' or some similar
message.
                                         Experiment! Turn off
your computer, unplug its keyboard, turn the computer back on,
and see how your computer gripes! (Then turn the computer off
again, and plug the keyboard back in.)
                                         RAM test To test the RAM
chips, the computer puts data into them, then reads the chips to
see if the data remains.
                                         During that process, the
typical computer will tell you how much RAM you have. For
example, if you have 640K of RAM, the screen will show the
computer counting up to 640K.
                                         If your computer is
old-fashioned, you'll see it count up to 640K twice. The first
time it counts to 640K, it puts data into the RAM chips; the
second time it counts to 640K, it reads the chips to see whether
the data's still there. For that kind of computer, if you trust
the RAM chips and don't want to wait for the computer to test
them, press the SPACE bar in the middle of the test. That
interrupts the RAM test and makes the computer move on to the
next activity.
                                         During the RAM test, the
original IBM PC shows no numbers on the screen at all. That
computer leaves you in the dark until the RAM test is done.
  Beeps At the end of the entire POST testing, the computer gives
a short beep, which tells you the testing's done.
  If you ever hear a long beep, or a series of several beeps, the
computer's trying to send you an alarm. Look at the messages on
the screen for details! If you hear the alarm but don't see any
messages on the screen, the cause is usually a faulty electrical
current: the power cord (that goes from the computer to the wall)
is loose, or your town's electric company isn't generating enough
volts, or an appliance in your building (such as an electric
heater or refrigerator) is stealing too much electricity, or the
power supply inside your computer is bad, or your motherboard is
very defective.
  If you hear the short beep that means the POST test is done,
and you don't hear any alarms, but your screen is totally dark,
the problem is probably just your screen. Make sure the screen is
turned on (so its power light glows); make sure the screen's
contrast and brightness knobs are turned up; make sure the cable
that runs from the screen to the computer is plugged in tight;
and make sure one of your colleagues didn't attach the wrong
screen to the wrong computer!

             Boot drive
  After finishing the power-on self test, the computer decides
which disk drive will be the boot drive.
  To decide, the computer begins by checking whether drive A
contains a formatted disk. If it does contain a formatted disk,
it becomes the boot drive (so that later the computer will
eventually print ``A>'' or ``A:\>'' on your screen).
  If drive A does not contain a formatted disk (or the drive's
door is accidentally open), the computer looks for drive C. If
the computer finds drive C (because you bought a hard disk and
formatted the main part of it), drive C becomes the boot drive
(so that later the computer will eventually print ``C>'' or
``C:\>'' on your screen).
  If drive A doesn't contain a formatted disk but you don't have
a drive C either, here's what happens. If your computer's built
by IBM, the computer prints ``IBM Personal Computer BASIC'' on
your screen and lets you write programs in BASIC. If your
computer's a clone instead, it waits for you to insert a
formatted disk into drive A.

         Hidden system files
  Next, the computer searches in the boot drive's root directory
for two hidden system files.
  MS-DOS calls them ``IO.SYS'' and ``MSDOS.SYS''. PC-DOS calls
them ``IBMIO.COM'' and ``IBMDOS.COM''.
  No system files? If the computer doesn't find the hidden system
files, the computer gripes:
Non-System disk or disk error
Replace and press any key to continue
To reply, put in drive A a disk containing those files (or make
drive A be empty and hope that drive C contains those files).
Then press ENTER. Again the computer will choose a boot drive and
search for hidden system files.

             CONFIG.SYS
  Next, the computer looks in the boot drive's root directory for
a file called ``CONFIG.SYS''. If the computer finds the file, it
obeys the instructions in that file; those instructions teach the
computer how to manage hardware intelligently ___ how to
CONFIGure your SYStem. If the computer does not find CONFIG.SYS,
the computer does not gripe; instead, the computer just manages
hardware stupidly.
                                         Does your computer have
a hard disk? If so, does drive C's root directory contain
CONFIG.SYS? To find out, say:
C:\>type config.sys
                                         If you're lucky, that
command will make the screen show you what's in the CONFIG.SYS
file. (If you're unlucky, the computer will just reply, ``File
not found'', which means the computer can't find a CONFIG.SYS
file.)
                                         On my fanciest computer,
when I say ___
C:\>type config.sys
the screen shows me these 9 equations:
device=dos\himem.sys /testmem:off
device=dos\emm386.exe ram d=48
dos=high,umb
stacks=0,0
buffers=40
files=50
devicehigh=dos\ansi.sys
devicehigh=dos\setver.exe
devicehigh=mtmcdas.sys /d:mscd000 /p:320
But on your computer, different equations might be better! Here
are the details. . . .
                                         HIMEM.SYS (in modern
DOS) The top equation (device=dos\himem.sys /testmem:off) makes
the computer run the HIMEM.SYS program, which is in the DOS
folder. That program teaches the computer how to manage extended
RAM, which is RAM beyond the first 640K.
                                         For example, suppose
your computer has 8 megabytes of RAM altogether. Without that
equation, your computer would handle just 640K of RAM and waste
the rest of the 8 megabytes!
                                         A program (such as
HIMEM.SYS) that teaches the computer how to manage extra hardware
is called a device driver. To put a device driver into
CONFIG.SYS, begin the equation by saying ``device=''.
                                         When you boot the
computer, the POST makes the computer check your RAM chips to
make sure they're reliable. The DOS 6.2 version of HIMEM.SYS
wastes time by checking the RAM chips again, unless you say
``/testmem:off'', which tells DOS 6.2 to skip the recheck. Say
``/testmem:off'' only if you're using DOS 6.2; for earlier
versions of DOS say just:
device=dos\himem.sys
                                         Windows 3.1 comes with
its own version of HIMEM.SYS. That version is earlier (and worse)
than the version that comes with DOS 6 & 6.2, but it's better
than the DOS 5 version. So if you're stuck with DOS 5 or earlier,
and your Windows is 3.1, say ``device=windows\himem.sys'' instead
of ``device=dos\himem.sys''. Do not make that switch if you have
DOS 6 or 6.2. If you have Windows 3 instead of Windows 3.1, make
that switch just if your DOS is 4 or earlier.
                                         Omit the HIMEM.SYS line
altogether if your computer is so primitive that it has less than
1M of RAM, or its CPU is slower than a 286, or you're Windowless
with DOS 4 or earlier.
                                         EMM386.EXE (in modern
DOS) The next equation (device=dos\emm386.exe ram d=48) makes the
computer run the EMM386.EXE program, which is in the DOS folder.
That program is a device driver that manages upper memory and
also turns some extended RAM into expanded RAM (which is the kind
of RAM required by old-fashioned programs).
  That program is called EMM386.EXE because it's an Expanded
Memory Manager that runs on any computer whose CPU is at least a
386. It runs if your CPU is a 386, 486, or Pentium.
  Use the EMM386.EXE equation just if your CPU is very modern
(386, 486, or Pentium) and your CONFIG.SYS file contains the
HIMEM.SYS equation. If you switched the HIMEM.SYS equation from
``dos\himem.sys'' to ``windows\himem.sys'', switch the EMM386.EXE
equation to ``windows\emm386.exe''.
  How much expanded RAM does EMM386.EXE create? The version of
EMM386.EXE in DOS 6 & 6.2 is smart: it creates as much expanded
RAM as necessary! It creates extra expanded RAM while
old-fashioned software is running (such as the DOS versions of
Word Perfect and 1-2-3), and creates less while modern software
is running (such as Windows), since modern software wants
extended RAM instead.
  The DOS 5 and Windows versions of EMM386.EXE are stupid: they
want you to say how much expanded RAM to create, by inserting a
number such as 512 before the ``ram'', like this:
device=dos\emm386.exe 512 ram d=48
The 512 tells the computer to create 512K of expanded RAM. 512 is
the best number to pick if your computer has 4M of RAM and you're
using a wide variety of programs (Windows programs and
non-Windows programs). If you pick a bigger number than 512, you
create more than 512K of expanded RAM; if you pick a smaller
number, you create less expanded RAM and have more extended RAM
left. Pick a big number (such as 1024) if your RAM is bigger than
4M and you're using mainly old software wanting expanded RAM
(such as the DOS versions of Word Perfect and Lotus 1-2-3). Pick
a small number (such as 256) if your RAM is smaller than 4M or
you're using mainly modern software (such as Windows). If you
omit the number, the computer assumes 256.
  If all your software is modern (so you don't need any expanded
RAM at all), type ``noems'' instead of ``ram'', like this:
device=dos\emm386.exe noems d=48
The ``noems'' tells the EMM386.EXE not to bother turning extended
RAM into expanded RAM, but to still manage upper memory.
  The EMM386.EXE program reserves at most 32K of RAM for direct
memory access (DMA), unless you say ``d=48'', which reserves 48K
instead. Say ``d=48'' just if you have a sound card (or any other
device requiring more than 32K of DMA).
  DOS (in modern DOS) The next equation (dos=high,umb) moves some
software out of the base RAM and puts that software elsewhere
instead, so the base RAM has more space left for other programs.
  That equation is an abbreviation for this pair of equations:
EquationMeaning
dos=highmove buffers & part of DOS to the high memory area
dos=umb move utility programs to the upper memory area
  The computer understands ``dos=high'' just if CONFIG.SYS
contains a HIMEM.SYS equation. The computer understands
``dos=umb'' just if CONFIG.SYS contains an EMM386.EXE equation.
So if CONFIG.SYS mentions HIMEM.SYS but not EMM386.EXE, say just:
dos=high

                                         Stacks (in DOS 3.3 & up)
The next equation (stacks=0,0) tells the computer that your
software handles interruptions well, so there are no stacks of
unexplained interrupts, and the computer doesn't need to reserve
any RAM for them.
                                         If your software is so
unreliable that the computer gripes by saying ``Stack Overflow''
or ``Exception error 12'', say:
stacks=9,256
That makes the computer create 9 stacks, each containing 256
bytes. If the computer still gripes, create even more stacks (up
to 64) and make them bigger (up to 512 bytes each). If the
computer still gripes, buy better software!
                                         Omit the stacks equation
if your DOS is earlier than version 3.3.
                                         Buffers The next
equation (buffers=40) makes the computer reserve enough RAM to
hold copies of 40 of the disk's sectors. That speeds up the
computer since the computer can look at those RAM copies faster
than waiting for the disk to spin to the correct sector.
                                         Each buffer consumes ½K
of RAM. The 40 buffers therefore consume 20K of RAM.
                                         If your DOS is classic
or your RAM is smaller than 1M, you can't afford to devote 20K of
RAM to buffers, so ask for fewer than 40 buffers: say
``buffers=15''.
                                         If your computer uses a
program called SMARTDRV (which I don't recommend), say
``buffers=10''.
                                         Files The next equation
(files=50) makes the computer reserve enough RAM to hold 50
filenames, so the computer can manipulate 50 files
simultaneously.
                                         Most programs manipulate
just a few files simultaneously. For those programs, saying
``files=30'' is fine. But some programs try to manipulate more
than 30 files simultaneously and require you to say ``files=50''
or even ``files=60'' or even ``files=99''.
                                         If you wish, start by
saying ``files=30'' and then see whether any of your fancy
programs complain; if they complain, switch to a higher number.
                                         ANSI.SYS The next
equation (devicehigh= dos\ansi.sys) makes the computer run the
ANSI.SYS program, which lets the screen display special
characters and colors. That equation is ignored by most software,
but it's required by some software, especially when your computer
is using a modem to telecommunicate with computerized bulletin
boards trying to put pretty boxes of info onto your screen.
                                         If you wish, try
omitting the ANSI.SYS equation, and put it back in just if you
encounter software that gripes about missing ANSI.SYS.
                                         Notice the equation
begins with the word ``devicehigh'' instead of ``device''. The
``high'' makes the computer put ANSI.SYS into upper memory
instead of base RAM, so the base RAM is free for other purposes.
                                         The computer understands
the ``high'' just if CONFIG.SYS mentions ``umb'' (as in
``dos=umb'' or ``dos=high,umb''). If CONFIG.SYS does NOT mention
``umb'', say ``device'' instead of ``devicehigh'', like this:
device=dos\ansi.sys
                                         SETVER.EXE (in modern
DOS) The next equation (devicehigh=dos\setver.exe) makes the
computer run the SETVER.EXE program, which makes your new DOS
pretend to be an old version, so old software will still work
when you buy the new DOS.
                                         This equation is useful
only in modern DOS. Omit the equation if your DOS is classic.
  Even in modern DOS, you can often omit this equation, since
most software doesn't care which version of DOS you bought.
Include the equation just if you're using old software that
gripes about your new DOS.
  On my computer, I include this equation because I like to use
an old DOS program called BACKUP.EXE. Since that program gripes
when it discovers I'm using DOS 6.2 instead of DOS 5, I must make
DOS 6.2 pretend to be DOS 5.
  When typing the equation, say ``device'' instead of
``devicehigh'' if your CONFIG.SYS lacks ``umb''.
  Mtmcdas (supplement to DOS) My CONFIG.SYS file's bottom
equation (devicehigh= mtmcdas.sys /d:mscd000 /p:320) makes the
computer run the MTMCDAS.SYS driver program, which controls
Mitsumi's brand of CD-ROM drive.
  That driver program is special. I got it from Mitsumi, not from
Microsoft. It does not come as part of MS-DOS. Use it just if
your CD-ROM drive is made by Mitsumi.
  My other fancy computer uses a CD-ROM drive made by Sony
instead of Mitsumi. On that computer, I use Sony's driver program
(which is called SLCD.SYS), and the line looks like this:
devicehigh=slcd.sys /d:mscd000 /b:300 /m:p
  If you use a different brand of CD-ROM drive, you must use a
different driver. Even if you have the same drive as I, you might
have to change the switches (such as /p:320 and /b:300) to make
the drive compatible with your computer.
  If your CD-ROM drive works fine, so does your CONFIG.SYS's
CD-ROM line: leave it the way your manufacturer gave it to you!
  If you don't have a CD-ROM drive at all, omit this line
altogether.
  Your own CONFIG.SYS If your drive C's root directory doesn't
contain a CONFIG.SYS file yet, create one! For example, you can
create a CONFIG.SYS file just like mine by typing this ___
C:\>copy con config.sys
device=dos\himem.sys /testmem:off
device=dos\emm386.exe ram d=48
dos=high,umb
stacks=0,0
buffers=40
files=50
devicehigh=dos\ansi.sys
devicehigh=dos\setver.exe
devicehigh=mtmcdas.sys /d:mscd000 /p:320
and then pressing the F6 key and then ENTER. That's the perfect
CONFIG.SYS for my fanciest computer; but for your computer,
modify those equations to handle your computer's peculiarities,
as I suggested when I explained each equation.
  If your drive C's root directory contains a CONFIG.SYS file
already, you can edit it by saying ``edit config.sys'' (in modern
DOS) or ``edlin config.sys'' (in classic DOS). But before you
perform surgery on your CONFIG.SYS file, copy it onto a floppy
disk (by saying ``copy config.sys a:''), so that if you make a
mistake you can return to what you had before.
  The computer examines the CONFIG.SYS equations just when the
computer is booting. If you edit CONFIG.SYS or create a new
CONFIG.SYS, the computer won't obey the new CONFIG.SYS equations
until the next time you boot the computer.
                                         If your dealer or
colleague has put many strange lines into your CONFIG.SYS file,
do not erase them until you find out why they're there. Most of
those lines are probably time-wasting junk put there by bloated
Microsoft DOS installation routines and should be erased, but
some of those lines might be essential. Be especially cautious
about erasing any lines saying ``device='' or ``devicehigh=''.
                                         When in doubt, leave
your CONFIG.SYS alone. Better safe than sorry! Follow the advice
of the world's best repairman: ``If it ain't broke, don't fix
it.''
                                         Hints If you're
ambitious and try to ``improve'' a CONFIG.SYS file, here are some
hints.
                                         Say ``devicehigh''
instead of ``device'', except for the lines about HIMEM.SYS and
EMM386. For ``devicehigh'' to work, CONFIG.SYS must mention
``umb''.
                                         The purpose of
``smartdrv'' and ``fastopen'' is to help the computer get
information from the disk faster; but if you have an IDE drive
(or any other drive with a built-in disk cache), your drive is
fast enough already! You should usually remove any mention of
``fastopen'' (which conflicts with commands such as ``defrag'')
and ``smartdrv'' (which consumes too much RAM, can conflict with
telecommunications programs, and can cause inconsistent writing
to the disk).
                                         To avoid conflicts, the
letters ``emm'' must appear in CONFIG.SYS just once. For example,
if your CONFIG.SYS mentions ``emm386.exe'', it must not mention
``emm386.sys'' or anything about ``qemm'' or ``nemm''.
                                         You should usually
remove any line saying ``break=on'', which slows your computer
down. The purpose of ``break=on'' is to let you interrupt the
computer more easily; but once you learn how to control the
computer correctly, you won't want to interrupt it anyway!
                                         Unless your computer is
wired to a computer network, you can safely save some RAM by
removing any mention of ``lastdrive''.
                                         If you remove a line
saying ``shell'', you must copy COMMAND.COM from the DOS folder
to the root directory by saying ___
C:\>copy dos\command.com
and if you're using DOS version 4 (or 4.01) you must also say:
C:\>copy dos\share.exe
                                         If your computer's a
Leading Edge Model D, make sure your CONFIG.SYS file contains a
line saying ``device=clkdvr.sys'' and the root directory contains
Leading Edge's CLKDVR.SYS program, which teaches your computer
how to give the correct date and time.
                                         For free help, phone me
anytime at 617-666-2666.

                                                    COMMAND.COM
                                         After the computer deals
with the issue of CONFIG.SYS, the computer looks in the boot
drive for a program called ``COMMAND.COM''. (The computer looks
in the root directory, unless CONFIG.SYS contained a ``shell=''
equation telling the computer to look in the DOS folder instead.)
                                         If the computer doesn't
find COMMAND.COM, the computer gripes:
Bad or missing Command Interpreter
                                         If the computer does
find COMMAND.COM, the computer runs the COMMAND.COM program,
which teaches the computer how to react to internal commands
(such as ver, echo, cls, date, time, dir, cd, md, copy, type,
rename, ren, del, and rd).
            AUTOEXEC.BAT
  Next, the computer looks in the boot drive's root directory for
a batch file called ``AUTOEXEC.BAT''. The computer AUTOmatically
EXECutes any commands in that file.
  Does your computer have a hard disk? If so, does drive C's root
directory contain AUTOEXEC.BAT? To find out, say:
C:\>type autoexec.bat
  If you're lucky, that command will make the screen show you
what's in the AUTOEXEC.BAT file. (If you're unlucky, the computer
will just reply, ``File not found'', which means the computer
can't find an AUTOEXEC.BAT file.)
  On my fanciest computer, when I say ___
C:\>type autoexec.bat
the computer shows me this batch of DOS commands:
@echo off
path c:\dos;c:\windows
set temp=c:\dos
set blaster=a220 i7 d1 t4
set sound=c:\sgnxpro
Lh mouse
Lh doskey
Lh mscdex /d:mscd000 /m:10 /e
  In certain situations, I recommend adding 4 extra lines, so the
AUTOEXEC.BAT becomes this:
@echo off
prompt $p$g
path c:\dos;c:\windows
set temp=c:\dos
set blaster=a220 i7 d1 t4
set sound=c:\sgnxpro
Lh mouse
Lh doskey
Lh mscdex /d:mscd000 /m:10 /e
Lh mode LPT1 retry=b
Lh share /L:500 /f:5100
win
  Here's what all those lines mean ___ and how you might need to
change some of them for your computer. . . .
  Echo The top command (@echo off) prevents the computer from
printing excessive messages on the screen. (To type the symbol
``@'', tap the 2 key while holding down the SHIFT key.)
  If your DOS is earlier than version 3.3, you must omit the
symbol ``@'' and say just:
echo off
  Prompt The next command (prompt $p$g) tells the computer how to
make the DOS prompts look, so that when you're in drive C's SARAH
folder the computer will say ``C:\SARAH>'' instead of just
``C>''.
  If your DOS is earlier than 6 and you forget to say ``prompt
$p$g'', the computer will say just ``C>'' instead of
``C:\SARAH>'', even when you're in the SARAH folder.
  DOS 6 & 6.2 is smarter: even if you don't say ``prompt $p$g'',
DOS 6 & 6.2 assume you meant to say ``prompt $p$g''. So if you're
using DOS 6 or 6.2, you don't need to say ``prompt $p$g''.
  Path The next command (path c:\dos;c:\windows) tells the
computer to hunt in the DOS and WINDOWS folders whenever you give
a command whose definition the computer can't find elsewhere.
  Use that command only if drive C has folders called ``DOS'' and
``WINDOWS''. If drive C has a DOS folder but no WINDOWS folder,
say just:
path c:\dos

                                         If you forget to give a
path command, and you're booting from drive C, DOS 6 & 6.2 assume
you meant to say ``path c:\dos''. Earlier DOS versions make no
assumptions; they create no path for you.
                                         Set temp The next
command (set temp=c:\dos) says that whenever the computer needs
to create a temporary file (which holds data temporarily and then
self-destructs), the computer should put that file into the DOS
folder (instead of into the root directory or a different
folder).
                                         Use that command just if
drive C has a folder called ``DOS''.
                                         Set blaster The next
command (set blaster=a220 i7 d1 t4) helps a sound card work
properly, if the sound card resembles the Soundblaster. Omit this
command if you don't have a sound card or if your sound card
isn't Soundblaster-compatible.
                                         Set sound The next
command (set sound= c:\sgnxpro) says the files about sound are in
a folder called SGNXPRO.
                                         Omit this command if you
don't have a sound card. If you DO have a sound card, mention the
correct folder; for example, if your sound folder is called
AUDIO16 instead of SGNXPRO, say:
set sound=c:\audio16
                                         Mouse (supplement to
DOS) The next command (Lh mouse) makes the computer run the
MOUSE.COM program, which is a device driver that teaches the
computer how to react when you move the mouse and click the
mouse's buttons.
                                         The ``Lh'' tells the
computer to ``load high'' the mouse program, so the computer
copies the mouse program into upper memory. (The computer doesn't
care whether you capitalize the L.)
                                         Use that command just if
you have a mouse and a program called ``MOUSE.COM''.
                                         The MOUSE.COM program is
not included in the price of DOS. Instead, you get the MOUSE.COM
program on a floppy disk from the company that manufactured your
mouse or computer, and you must copy the MOUSE.COM program onto
your hard disk.
                                         The ``Lh mouse'' command
works just if the MOUSE.COM program is in your root directory or
DOS folder. If MOUSE.COM is in a different folder, remind the
computer which folder MOUSE.COM is in. For example, if MOUSE.COM
is in a folder called MOUSEY, say:
Lh mousey\mouse
If MOUSE.COM is in a folder called MICKEY, say:
Lh mickey\mouse
If MOUSE.COM is in a folder called MOUSE, say:
Lh mouse\mouse
                                         If your CONFIG.SYS file
mentioned ``mouse'' already, don't put any mouse command in your
AUTOEXEC.BAT file.
                                         Omit the ``Lh'' part of
the command if your CONFIG.SYS file lacks any mention of ``umb''.

  Doskey (in modern DOS) The next command (Lh doskey) makes the
computer run the DOSKEY.COM program. That program modifies DOS so
that when you're typing a DOS command, you can edit the command
easily by pressing these keys:
Pressing the left-arrow key moves the cursor left without erasing
characters. Pressing the right-arrow key moves the cursor to the
right.
Pressing the DELETE key deletes a character.
Pressing the INSERT key lets you type extra characters to insert.
Pressing the up-arrow key repeats the previous DOS command you
typed.
  Use that command just if your DOS is modern. Omit the ``Lh''
part of the command if your CONFIG.SYS file lacks ``umb''.
  The command is useful just if you often type DOS commands and
edit them. If you rarely type any DOS commands (because you
mainly use Windows or menus instead), omit this command.
  Mscdex (in DOS 6 & 6.2) The next command (Lh mscdex /d:mscd000
/m:10 /e) makes the computer run the MicroSoft CD EXtension,
which is a program that teaches the computer how to control your
CD-ROM drive. Use this command just if you have a CD-ROM drive.
The command is part of DOS 6 & 6.2.
  In the mscdex command, the ``/m:10'' says to reserve enough RAM
to hold copies of 10 sectors from the CD-ROM. In other words, it
creates 10 buffers.
  The ``/e'' says to put those buffers in expanded RAM (instead
of in base RAM).
  The ``/d:mscd000'' says the CD-ROM drive is named mscd000.
  Instead of ``mscd000'', you can invent any other name you wish.
Put the name in this command and also in CONFIG.SYS's CD-ROM
equation.
  Omit the ``Lh'' part of the command if your CONFIG.SYS file
lacks ``umb''.
  Mode The next command (Lh mode LPT1 retry=b) tells the computer
to be patient and wait for the printer to respond even if the
wait is long. Use this command just if your printer's an inkjet
or a slow (4-page-per-minute) laser printer.
  To give this kind of command when your CONFIG.SYS file lacks
``umb'', omit the ``Lh'' and say just:
mode LPT1 retry=b
To give this kind of command when your DOS is earlier than
version 4, say this instead:
mode LPT1 ,,p
  Share (in DOS 4 & modern DOS) The next command (Lh share /L:500
/f:5100) makes the computer check whether programs might
interfere with each other.
  If programs were designed well, no such checking would be
needed. Unfortunately, a word-processing program called
``Microsoft Word 6 for Windows'' is designed poorly and must be
prevented from interfering with other programs. Microsoft's other
new word-processing programs for Windows (such as ``Microsoft
Works 3 for Windows'' and ``Microsoft Publisher 2'') are designed
poorly also and require a ``share'' command.
  Say ``Lh share /L:500 /f:5100'' just if you use a program that
requires a ``share'' command, such as Microsoft Word 6 for
Windows, Microsoft Works 3 for Windows, and Microsoft Publisher
2.
  Unfortunately, that ``share'' command makes all your programs
run much slower. You'll wish you didn't buy Microsoft Word 6 for
Windows!
                                         Win (supplement to DOS)
The bottom command (win) makes the computer automatically start
running Windows. Use this command just if Windows is required by
nearly all your software. Omit this command if you often use
non-Windows software.
  Since I frequently use the DOS non-Windows versions of Word
Perfect and Q&A, my AUTOEXEC.BAT file does not say ``win''.
  Your own AUTOEXEC.BAT If your drive C's root directory doesn't
contain an AUTOEXEC.BAT file yet, create one! For example, you
can create an AUTOEXEC.BAT file by typing this ___
What to type      Changes you might make
C:\>copy con autoexec.bat
@echo off         If DOS is earlier than 3.3, omit ``@''.
prompt $p$g       DOS 6 & 6.2 let you omit this line.
path c:\dos;c:\windowsIf no Windows, omit ``;c:\windows''.
set temp=c:\dos   If no folder called ``DOS'', edit this.
set blaster=a220 i7 d1 t4If no sound card, omit this line.
set sound=c:\sgnxproIf no SGNXPRO folder, edit this.
Lh mouse          Say ``mouse\mouse'' if necessary.
Lh doskey         If your DOS is classic, omit this line.
Lh mscdex /d:mscd000 /m:10 /eIf no CD-ROM drive, omit this line.
Lh mode LPT1 retry=bOmit if printer works fine without it.
Lh share /L:500 /f:5100Omit if no Word for Windows 6.
win               Omit if use non-Windows programs.
then press the F6 key and then ENTER.
  If your drive C's root directory contains an AUTOEXEC.BAT file
already, you can edit it by saying ``edit autoexec.bat'' (in
modern DOS) or ``edlin autoexec.bat'' (in classic DOS). But
before you perform surgery on your AUTOEXEC.BAT file, copy it
onto a floppy disk (by saying ``copy autoexec.bat a:''), so that
if you make a mistake you can return to what you had before.
  The computer examines the commands in AUTOEXEC.BAT just when
the computer is booting. If you edit AUTOEXEC.BAT or create a new
AUTOEXEC.BAT, the computer won't obey the new AUTOEXEC.BAT
equations until the next time you boot the computer.
  If your dealer or colleague has put many strange lines into
your AUTOEXEC.BAT file, don't erase them until you discover their
purpose. When in doubt, leave AUTOEXEC.BAT alone.
  Hints If you're ambitious and try to ``improve'' an
AUTOEXEC.BAT file, here are some hints.
  Make sure it's the top line that says ``@echo off'' (or the top
pair of lines that say ``echo off'' and ``cls'').
  Just one line should say ``path''. For example, if a line says
``path c:\dos'' and a line says ``path c:\windows'', combine them
into a single line saying ``path c:\dos;c:\windows''.
  The bottom line of AUTOEXEC.BAT is particularly important: it
tells the computer what to show the human when AUTOEXEC.BAT
finishes. If that line says ``win'', the computer will
automatically do Windows. If that line says ``dosshell'', the
computer will automatically run the DOS shell program, which
crudely imitates Windows. If that line says ``menu'', the
computer will automatically display a list of programs for the
human to choose from (if you or your dealer created a file called
``MENU.BAT'' or ``MENU.COM'' or ``MENU.EXE''). If the bottom line
mentions some other program, the computer will automatically run
that program.
  Though it's cute to see the computer automatically run Windows,
the DOS shell, a menu, or another program, it's a nuisance if
you'd rather run a different program instead. I recommend that
you delete any such line, so the computer will just say ``C:\>''
and wait for you to choose which program to run next. Then after
that C prompt, type ``win'' or ``dosshell'' or ``menu'' or the
name of some other program.
  You can remove any line saying ``ver'', since ``ver'' just
makes the computer print a message saying which DOS version
you're using.
  You can remove any line saying ``verify off'', since the
computer does ``verify off'' even if you don't say so!
  Every modern computer includes a battery-powered clock/calendar
chip, which keeps track of the time and date even when the
computer is turned off. That chip is missing from old-fashioned
computers (such as the original IBM PC), which must be coached by
inserting ``date'' and ``time'' lines into your AUTOEXEC.BAT
file.
  If your CONFIG.SYS file has a line mentioning
``shell=c:\dos\command.com'' (which tells the computer to find
COMMAND.COM in the DOS folder instead of in the root directory),
your AUTOEXEC.BAT file should have a line saying ``set
comspec=c:\dos\command.com''.
  For free help in editing your AUTOEXEC.BAT file, phone me
anytime at 617-666-2666.
  No AUTOEXEC.BAT If the computer doesn't find AUTOEXEC.BAT, the
computer automatically performs the ``date'' and ``time''
commands (which ask you to confirm the date and time). Then the
computer prints a DOS prompt and waits for you to type a DOS
command.
  Riddle Congratulations! Now you're smart enough to master the
answer to the favorite riddle among programmers.
Riddle: What do you get when you cross Lee Iacocca with a
vampire?
Answer: an AUTOEXEC.BAT

             Your input
  After the computer deals with the issue of AUTOEXEC.BAT, the
computer waits for you to type something on the keyboard (such as
a DOS command).

               Reboot
  You've learned that when you turn the computer on, the computer
performs this boot procedure: the computer does a power-on self
test (POST), decides whether to boot from drive A or drive C,
then obeys all commands in the boot drive's IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS,
CONFIG.SYS, COMMAND.COM, and AUTOEXEC.BAT and waits for your
input.
  After using the computer awhile, suppose you hit some wrong
keys that make the computer start acting strangely, and you're so
confused by the whole situation that you don't know what to do.
When all else fails, boot the computer again. That's called
rebooting. Here are three ways to reboot. . . .
  Method 1: power down Turn the computer off. Wait 10 seconds
(for the RAM chips to cool down and forget whatever crazy stuff
they were thinking of). Turn the computer back on again.
  Since that procedure makes you wait for the RAM chips to cool
down, it's called a cold reboot.
                                         Method 2: RESET Press
the RESET button, by using your favorite finger.
                                         That button's not on the
keyboard. Instead, it's usually on the front of the computer
system's unit, somewhere near the floppy drive's door.
                                         (You'll find the RESET
button on most clones but not on computers built by IBM. On some
obsolete clones, the reset button is on the back of the system
unit.)
                                         When you press that
button, the computer stops whatever it was doing. The screen goes
blank. The computer beeps, then reboots by doing the POST, etc.
                                         That's called ``giving
the machine the finger''. It's also called a one-finger reboot or
hardware reboot or hard boot.
                                         Method 3: Ctrl Alt
DELETE While holding down the Ctrl and Alt keys simultaneously,
tap the key that says ``Delete'' (or ``Del''). That requires
three fingers!
                                         That makes the computer
stop whatever it was doing. The screen goes blank. The computer
beeps, then reboots. But the computer abridges the reboot
procedure: during the POST, it doesn't bother testing the RAM.
                                         That's called ``giving
the machine three fingers''. It's also called a three-finger
reboot or software reboot or soft boot or warm boot. It's the
fastest way to reboot, since you don't have to wait for the RAM
test or for the machine to cool down. But if the computer ever
goes so wacko that it ignores your keyboard, it also ignores that
three-finger reboot, so you must use one of the other rebooting
methods instead.
                                         ``Hey, honey, how's work
at the computer? Getting frustrated? Computer's not being
nicey-nicey to yoosy-yoosy? Why don't you do a soft, warm boot?
But wait, here's a soft, warm boot! In fact, here's a pair of
them! Merry Christmas!''
                                         I have a nightmare that
when making love to a woman, I accidentally hit the wrong
combinations of her ``buttons'', she reboots, and I realize she
was just a machine.
                                         I've met people like
that. Haven't you? In the middle of a pleasant relationship, you
accidentally hit the wrong ``buttons'', the person nastily
reboots, and you realize the person you've been admiring is just
a machine.
                                         If you're a politician,
your goal is to make the voters find your opponent's reset button
before they find yours.

                                               Make a disk bootable
                                         When you boot the
computer (by turning it on, pressing RESET, or pressing Ctrl ALT
DELETE), the computer looks in drive A or C for a bootable disk
(a disk that's been formatted and contains the two hidden system
files and COMMAND.COM).
                                         When you buy DOS, it
usually comes on a pile of floppy disks. In that pile, the first
disk is bootable. (Exception: if you bought the DOS 5, 6, or 6.2
upgrade instead of DOS 5, 6, or 6.2 itself, the first disk in the
DOS upgrade's pile is not bootable.)
                                         If your computer came
with a hard disk containing DOS, your hard disk is bootable.
                                         If you have a bootable
disk, you can make other disks become bootable. For example, if
you have a bootable hard disk, here's how to make a blank floppy
become bootable. . . .
                                         First, turn the computer
on without any floppy in the drive, so the computer says
``C:\>''. Then put the blank floppy into drive A.
  If the floppy wasn't formatted yet, say ``format a: /s''. That
formats the floppy and copies onto it the two hidden system files
and COMMAND.COM.
  If the floppy was formatted already, say ``sys a:''. That
copies the two hidden system files to the floppy. If your DOS is
modern, that command also copies COMMAND.COM. (If your DOS is
classic, say ``sys a:'' and then say ``copy command.com a:''.)
  How to make a blank hard disk bootable Suppose you buy a hard
disk that's new and totally blank, so it doesn't even contain
DOS. Here's how to make it bootable.
  First, the hard disk must be low-level formatted. It's been
low-level formatted already if the drive is IDE or if your dealer
is nice. Otherwise, you must do a low-level format yourself. (The
way to do a low-level format depends on which hard drive,
hard-drive controller, and CPU you bought. For details, ask your
dealer.)
  Next, put the first DOS floppy into drive A and turn the
computer on. If you're using DOS 4 or modern DOS, the computer
will automatically install DOS onto your hard disk and make the
hard disk bootable; just follow the instructions you see on the
screen. If you're using an earlier DOS, you must go through the
following procedure instead. . . .
  The computer will say ``A>'' or ``A:\>''.
  Next, tell the computer how to split the hard drive into
several parts, called ``drive C'', ``drive D'', drive E'', etc.
Each of those parts is called a partition. To partition the hard
drive, say ``fdisk''. The computer will say:
Choose one of the following:
    1. Create DOS partition
    2. Change Active Partition
    3. Delete DOS Partition
    4. Display Partition Information
Enter choice: [1]
Choose option 1, by pressing the ENTER key. The computer will ask
you several questions; respond to each by pressing the ENTER key.
Tell the computer to make the primary DOS partition (drive C) be
as large as possible and active. At the end of the process,
reboot the computer (with the first DOS floppy still in drive A),
so you see ``A>'' again.
   Then say:
A>format c: /s
That makes the computer format drive C. The ``/s'' makes the
computer copy the hidden system files and COMMAND.COM onto drive
C, so drive C becomes bootable.
  (When you give that format command, if the computer gripes by
saying ``Invalid drive specification'', try again to partition
the hard drive.)

            SPECIAL KEYS
                                         You can press these
special keys. . . .

                                                     PAUSE key
                                         Suppose you say ``dir
dos'' or give some other command that makes the computer print a
long message on your screen. If the computer is printing faster
than you can read, make the computer pause (so you can catch up
and read the message) by pressing the PAUSE key. That makes the
computer pause until you press another key (such as ENTER).
                                         On modern keyboards,
which have 101 or 102 keys, the PAUSE key is the last key in the
top row. Older keyboards, which have just 83 keys, lack a PAUSE
key: instead, tap the NUM LOCK key while holding down the Ctrl
key.

                                                Break (Ctrl PAUSE)
                                         Suppose you tell the
computer to perform an activity that takes lots of time (such as
print a long directory, or format a disk, or copy an entire
disk). While the computer is performing, suppose you change your
mind and want the computer to stop.
                                         To make the computer
stop, tell the computer to break the activity. Here's how: tap
the PAUSE key while holding down the Ctrl key.
                                         (If your keyboard
doesn't have a PAUSE key, tap the SCROLL LOCK key while holding
down the Ctrl key.)
                                         The computer will stop
the activity. Then tell the computer what to do next: type your
next command.

                                                F5 (in DOS 6 & 6.2)
                                         In case CONFIG.SYS or
AUTOEXEC.BAT contain errors that prevent the computer from
booting properly, DOS 6 & 6.2 let you perform this trick. . . .
                                         Try booting the
computer; but when the computer says ``Starting MS-DOS'',
immediately press the F5 key. That makes the computer skip
CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT and just give you a DOS prompt.

                                                F8 (in DOS 6 & 6.2)
                                         When the computer says
``Starting MS-DOS'', try pressing F8 immediately (instead of F5).
                                         Then the computer shows
you each line of CONFIG.SYS and asks you whether to obey the
line. Press Y to make the computer obey the line, or press N to
make the computer ignore the line.
                                         Then the computer asks
you whether to obey AUTOEXEC.BAT. Press Y or N. If you press N,
the computer skips AUTOEXEC.BAT. If you press Y instead, here's
what happens: DOS 6 makes the computer do all of AUTOEXEC.BAT;
DOS 6.2 makes the computer show you each line of AUTOEXEC.BAT and
ask you to press Y or N for each line.
           Alt characters
  You can type these special characters:
 20 
 21 

128 Ç     160 á     192 └     224 α
129 ü     161 í     193 ┴     225 ß
130 é     162 ó     194 ┬     226 Γ
131 â     163 ú     195 ├     227 π
132 ä     164 ñ     196 ─     228 Σ
133 à     165 Ñ     197 ┼     229 σ
134 å     166 ª     198 ╞     230 µ
135 ç     167 º     199 ╟     231 τ
136 ê     168 ¿     200 ╚     232 Φ
137 ë     169 ⌐     201 ╔     233 Θ
138 è     170 ¬     202 ╩     234 Ω
139 ï     171 ½     203 ╦     235 δ
140 î     172 ¼     204 ╠     236 ∞
141 ì     173 ¡     205 ═     237 φ
142 Ä     174 «     206 ╬     238 ε
143 Å     175 »     207 ╧     239 ∩
144 É     176 ░     208 ╨     240 ≡
145 æ     177 ▒     209 ╤     241 ±
146 Æ     178 ▓     210 ╥     242 ≥
147 ô     179 │     211 ╙     243 ≤
148 ö     180 ┤     212 ╘     244 ⌠
149 ò     181 ╡     213 ╒     245 ⌡
150 û     182 ╢     214 ╓     246 ÷
151 ù     183 ╖     215 ╫     247 ≈
152 y     184 ╕     216 ╪     248 °
153 Ö     185 ╣     217 ┘     249 ∙
154 Ü     186 ║     218 ┌     250 ·
155 ¢     187 ╗     219 █     251 √
156 £     188 ╝     220 ▄     252 ⁿ
157 ¥     189 ╜     221 ▌     253 ²
158 ₧     190 ╛     222 ▐     254 ■
159 ƒ     191 ┐     223 ▀
  For example, here's how to type the symbol ñ, whose code number
is 164. Hold down the Alt key; and while you keep holding down
the Alt key, type 164 by using the numeric keypad (the number
keys on the far right side of the keyboard). When you finish
typing 164, lift your finger from the Alt key, and you'll see ñ
on your screen!
  Those characters are called alternate characters or Alt
characters or IBM graphics characters.
                                                    Repeat (F3)
                                         To repeat a DOS command,
press the F3 key, then ENTER. Here are examples. . . .
                                         Suppose you have a file
called MARY and say ``print mary'' to print it on paper. To print
a second copy (to hand a friend), you don't have to say ``print
mary'' again: just press the F3 key. That makes the computer
automatically put the words ``print mary'' on the screen again.
Then press ENTER.
                                         Suppose you say ``dir
a:'' to display a directory of the floppy in drive A. To see the
directory of another floppy, put that floppy into drive A and
then press the F3 key, which makes the computer say ``dir a:''
again. Press ENTER.
                                         Suppose your hard disk
contains a folder called SARAH, and you have a pile of floppy
disks containing info that's simple (no folders or hidden files).
Here's how to copy everything from those floppy disks to SARAH.
Put the first floppy into drive A. Copy everything from that
floppy to SARAH by saying ``copy a:*.* sarah''. Put the second
floppy into drive A, then press the F3 key and ENTER. Put the
third floppy into drive A, then press the F3 key and ENTER.
                                         Sometimes, the computer
ignores the F3 key. That happens if you've recently given a
command (such as ``edit'') that uses lots of RAM and ``steals''
that RAM from the F3 command.
                                         If your AUTOEXEC.BAT
says ``Lh doskey'' (because your DOS is modern), you can press
the up-arrow key instead of F3. The up-arrow key has two
advantages over F3:
The up-arrow key is easier for humans to remember than F3 (which
beginners confuse with F2 and F4).

Unlike F3, the up-arrow key always works, even if you recently
gave a command such as ``edit'' that consumes lots of RAM.


           PRINT ON PAPER
  Normally, the computer prints its answers on the screen. To
make the computer print its answers on the printer's paper
instead, use any of the following methods. . . .

          PRINT SCREEN key
  If your keyboard is modern (with 101 keys), one of the keys is
marked ``Print Screen''.
  Dump Pressing the PRINT SCREEN key makes the printer dump onto
paper a snapshot of everything that's on the screen. The snapshot
on the paper is called a screen dump.
  Echo Try this experiment: while holding down the CONTROL key
(which is marked ``Ctrl''), tap the PRINT SCREEN key. Then lift
your fingers. That makes the computer perform this trick: it
waits for you to type something, then copies your typing onto
paper. The copying onto paper is called echoing.
  The computer will continue echoing onto paper whatever you type
on the screen (and whatever the computer types on the screen),
until you tell the computer to stop echoing (by pressing CONTROL
with PRINT SCREEN again).
  Notice that to stop the echo, you hit the same keys that
started the echo. That situation's called a toggle. A toggle is a
key (or series of keystrokes) that tells the computer to start a
process and, when hit again, tells the computer to stop.
  Computerists say, ``The printer-echo toggle is CONTROL with
PRINT SCREEN.'' They also say, ``To toggle the printer echo, hit
CONTROL PRINT SCREEN.''
  PrtSc key If your keyboard has just 83 keys (instead of 101),
it has a ``PrtSc'' key instead of a ``Print Screen'' key. On such
a keyboard, here's how to get a screen dump: while holding down
the SHIFT key, press the ``PrtSc'' key. Here's how to start
echoing: while holding down the Ctrl key, press the ``PrtSc''
key.
  PC Junior If your computer is a PC Junior, get a screen dump by
pressing the Fn key then the PrtSc key; start echoing by pressing
the Fn key then the Echo key.
  Laser printers If you're using a laser printer (such as the
Hewlett-Packard Laserjet 2), you might see the printer's FORM
FEED light go on. That means a sheet of paper has been printed
and is waiting to be removed from the printer.
  To remove the paper, turn off the ON LINE light (by tapping the
ON LINE button), then press the FORM FEED button.
  After you've removed the paper, turn the ON LINE light back on
(by pressing the ON LINE button again).
  IBM graphics characters If you try to make your printer print
an IBM graphics character (such as Alt 164, which is ñ), the
printer might print a weirder character instead, unless you're
using software (such as a word processor) that reminds the
printer to use IBM graphics characters.
                                                        Prn
                                         When giving a DOS
command, you can use the printer by saying ``prn''. Here are
examples. . . .
                                         Pipe to printer If you
type ``>prn'' at the end of a command, the computer will send the
answers to the printer instead of to the screen.
                                         For example, to make the
computer send a directory of drive A to the printer (instead of
to your screen), give this command: ``dir a: >prn''. That's
pronounced, ``directory of drive A, redirected to the printer''
or ``directory of drive A, piped to the printer''. The space
before the symbol ``>'' is optional: you can say either ``dir a:
>prn'' or ``dir a:>prn''.
                                         To print ``I love you''
on paper, give this command: ``echo I love you>prn''.
                                         To type all the lines of
file MARY onto paper (instead of onto your screen), say ``type
mary>prn''.
                                         Copy file to printer
Another way to copy all the lines of MARY onto your printer's
paper is to say ``copy mary prn''.
                                         To send info directly
from your keyboard (console) to the printer, say ``copy con
prn''. Underneath that command, type whatever sentences you want
the printer to print. When you finish typing your last sentence,
press the F6 key and then the ENTER key. Then the printer will
print all the sentences.

                                                       Print
                                         Another way to print all
MARY's lines onto paper is to say ``print mary''.
                                         (If the computer says
``Bad command or file name'', your computer is set up incorrectly
and can't find the PRINT.COM program. In that case, remind the
computer where the PRINT.COM program is. For example, if the
PRINT.COM program is in your hard disk's DOS folder, say
``c:\dos\print mary''. If the PRINT.COM program is in drive A,
say ``a:print mary''.)
                                         The first time you give
the print command, the computer will ask you for the ``Name of
list device''. To reply, just press the ENTER key.
                                         While the printer is
printing MARY's lines, the screen will show a DOS prompt and let
you continue typing DOS commands. So the computer is doing two
things simultaneously ___ it's printing MARY's lines at the same
time that it's letting you type additional commands. In that
situation, MARY is said to be printed in the background.

              ANALYZE YOUR COMPUTER
  To analyze your computer, you can type ``dir'' (which tells you
which files are on the disk) and ``chkdsk'' (which tells you how
much the disk can hold, how much free space is left on the disk,
how much conventional RAM you have, and how much free space is
left in conventional RAM). I explained those commands earlier.
  Now I'll reveal additional commands, which let you analyze your
computer more thoroughly, diagnose hidden ills, and help you cure
those illnesses. Give these additional commands whenever you buy
a new computer and want to find out whether you were ripped off,
or whenever your computer acts sick, or whenever you want to
supercharge your computer and make it super-healthy, or whenever
you're just plain curious about what how your computer is faring!

           Mem (in DOS 4 & modern DOS)
  DOS 4, 5, 6, and 6.2 will tell you how much RAM memory is in
your computer, if you say ``mem''.
  DOS 6.2 For example, my computer has DOS 6.2 and a 4-megabyte
RAM. Saying ``mem'' makes it print this table on my screen:
Memory Type        Total  =   Used  +   Free
----------------  -------   -------   -------
Conventional         640K       20K      620K
Upper                 91K       26K       65K
Reserved             384K      384K        0K
Extended (XMS)     2,981K      485K    2,496K
----------------  -------   -------   -------
Total memory       4,096K      915K    3,181K
  That table's bottom line says the computer has 4 megabytes
(4,096K) of memory chips. 915K of that memory is being used
already, leaving 3,181K free to hold additional programs and
data.
  The table's other lines show how the 4 megabytes is split into
several parts: conventional RAM, upper RAM, reserved RAM, and
extended RAM.
  Next, the computer prints a line of subtotals. Those subtotals
show what happens when you add the conventional and upper RAM
together:
Total under 1 MB     731K       46K      685K
  Then the computer prints this message:
Total Expanded (EMS)                3,392K (3,473,408 bytes)
Free Expanded (EMS)                 2,736K (2,801,664 bytes)
That means 3,392K of my extended RAM can be turned into expanded
RAM. Some of that expanded RAM is consumed by the EMM386.EXE
program itself, leaving 2,736K free.
  If you say ``mem /c/p'' (which means ``MEMory Classification
with Pauses''), the screen will display a more detailed message,
which also lists each program in the first megabyte and reveals
how much RAM each of those programs consumes. (When you finish
reading the first screenful, press ENTER to see the second.)
  DOS 6 In DOS 6, saying ``mem'' has almost the same effect as in
DOS 6.2. Unfortunately, DOS 6 is too stupid to put commas in big
numbers, and DOS 6 says ``Adapter RAM/ROM'' instead of
``Reserved''.
  DOS 4 & 5 In DOS 4 & 5, saying ``mem'' makes the computer print
this kind of message on your screen:
Message                 Meaning
 655360 bytes total conventional memoryThe conventional RAM is
655,360 bytes (640K).
 655360 bytes available to MS-DOSAll of those bytes can be used.
 630480 largest executable program sizeSince DOS itself consumes
                        some of those bytes, 630,480 bytes remain
                        for programs to use.
1441792 bytes total EMS memoryThe EMS expanded memory is
1,441,792 bytes,
1048576 bytes free EMS memoryof which 1 megabyte is left for
programs to use.

3145728 bytes total contiguous extended memoryMain extended
memory is 3 megs.
      0 bytes available contiguous extended memoryNone of those
bytes are wasted.
1900544 bytes available XMS memorySome of those bytes were turned
                        into expanded memory, leaving 1,900,544
                        bytes.

                                                     Missing
memory? If the ``mem'' command reports less available free memory
than you expected, increase the available free memory by editing
your CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files.
                                                     To make
modern DOS manage extended memory, make sure your CONFIG.SYS file
says ``device=dos\himem.sys''. To make those DOS versions manage
expanded memory on a 386, 486, or Pentium, make sure CONFIG.SYS
has a line mentioning ``emm386''.
                                                     In
CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT, avoid mentioning ``smartdrv'', which
consumes lots of RAM.

                                                     Msd (in DOS 6 & 6.2)
                                                     If you have
DOS 6 or 6.2 or Windows 3.1, you can say ``msd''. That makes the
computer run the MicroSoft Diagnostics program, which analyzes
your computer and prints its analysis on the screen.
                                                     The analysis
tells you who manufactured the motherboard and ROM BIOS chip,
what kind of CPU chip you have (8088, 286, 386, 486, or Pentium),
how much RAM you have (conventional, extended, and expanded),
what kind of video card you have, whether you're attached to a
network, which version of DOS you're using, what kind of mouse
you have, whether you have a game card (to attach a joystick),
which disk drives you have (A, B, and C), how many parallel
printer ports you have (to attach printers to), how many serial
ports you have, and more!
                                                     When you
finish reading the analysis, press the F3 key.

                                                     Scandisk (in DOS 6.2)
                                                     The ``chkdsk
/f'' command makes the computer fix errors on your hard disk ___
but just the errors that are obvious. To fix all important
errors, even the errors that are not obvious, say ``scandisk''
instead, like this:
C:\>scandisk
                                                     That command
works just if you have DOS 6.2. Once you've given that command,
the computer says, ``ScanDisk is now checking drive C''.
                                                     Then the
computer starts testing five aspects of drive C: the drive's
media descriptor, the file allocation tables, the directory
structure, the file system, and the surface scan. Each of those
tests is quick (just a few seconds), except for the surface scan,
which typically takes about 20 minutes.
  The computer does the four quick tests. Then it gives you an
estimate of how long the surface-scan test will take. It asks
you:
Do you want to perform a surface scan now?
If you do, press ENTER; if you don't (because you're too
impatient to wait for it to finish), press N instead.
  During all those tests, if the computer detects a error on your
hard disk, the computer will try to fix it. Just follow the
computer's instructions on the screen! If the computer says
``ScanDisk found data that might be lost files or directories'',
press L then S.
  Verdict When the computer has finished all tests you requested,
the computer will give you its verdict.
  If you're very lucky, the computer will give you this verdict:
ScanDisk did not find any problems on drive C.
If you're somewhat lucky, the computer will say this instead:
ScanDisk found and fixed problems on drive C.
If you're totally luckless, and your disk is too hideously
screwed up to be fixable, the computer will give up and just say:
There are still errors on drive C.
  Dismissal After the computer prints one of those three
verdicts, press the X key.
  Other drives If you want the computer to fix the disk that's in
drive A instead of C, say ``scandisk a:'', like this:
C:\scandisk a:

       Defrag (in DOS 6 & 6.2)
  Suppose you delete a small file from your hard disk, so your
hard disk acquires a small unused gap. If you then try to put a
big file onto your hard disk, the computer might put part of the
big file into the small unused gap and put the rest of the big
file elsewhere, so that the big file consists of two separated
fragments. In that case, the big file is said to be fragmented.
Unfortunately, a fragmented file slows down the computer, since
the computer must look in two separate parts of the disk to find
the complete file.
  To make the computer handle the hard disk faster, rearrange the
files on the disk so that none of the files are fragmented.
That's called defragmenting the disk (or defragging the disk).
  How to defrag DOS 6 & 6.2 let you defrag drive C easily. Here's
how.
  First, make the computer display a normal C prompt, so you see
this:
C:\>
  Next, make sure your disk is acting reliably. To check your
disk's reliability, say ``scandisk'' (in DOS 6.2) or ``chkdsk/f''
(in DOS 6).
  After you've assured yourself that your disk is acting
reliably, say ``defrag c: /f'', like this:
C:\>defrag c: /f
  That makes the computer defrag drive C fully. The computer will
also put your files as close as possible to the directory tracks
(the outermost tracks), so the computer can access the files
faster.
  Usually, the process takes several minutes. (While you're
waiting, go have a cup of coffee or a snack or go work on a
non-computerized problem or make love.) When the computer's
finished, it will play a quick burst of joyous music
and then say ``C:\>'' again, so you can give another DOS command.
                                         When to defrag About
once a month (or whenever you're in the mood!), say ``defrag c:
/f'' again, which rearranges the files again and restores
youthful peppiness to your hard drive. Yes, saying ``defrag c:
/f'' is like letting your hard drive drink from the fountain of
youth!

                                               Msav (in DOS 6 & 6.2)
                                         To make sure your hard
disk doesn't have any viruses, run the MicroSoft Anti-Virus
program by saying ``msav'' at the C prompt, like this:
C:\>msav
                                         The computer will say
``MicroSoft Anti-Virus'' and ``Main Menu''. Press ENTER.
                                         The computer will check
your entire RAM and hard disk for viruses. That's called scanning
for viruses (or doing a virus scan).
                                         If the computer finds a
virus, the computer will say ``Virus Found''. The computer will
tell you the virus's name and which file it infected. To respond,
press ENTER. The computer will get rid of the virus. That's
called cleaning out the virus.
                                         If the computer notices
a program was changed since the previous time you said ``msav'',
the computer will say ``Verify Error''. The computer will tell
you the program's name and how the program was changed. Usually
this ``Verify Error'' message does not mean you have a virus; it
usually means just that you installed a newer version of the
program. To respond, press either D (to delete the program,
because you think it's infected by a virus) or U (to tell the
computer that you changed the program intentionally and to Update
the computer's understanding of it) or O (to temporarily ignore
the problem and cOntinue).
                                         When the computer has
finished scanning for viruses, the computer will brag about the
number of ``Viruses Detected and Cleaned''. Press the ENTER key,
then the X key, then the ENTER key again.
                                         CHKLIST.MS While running
the MicroSoft Anti-Virus program, the computer usually puts into
each directory an extra file called CHKLIST.MS, which is a
CHecKLIST created by MicroSoft. It lets the computer check for
future ``Verify Errors''. The next time you say ``msav'', the
computer looks at those CHKLIST.MS files again to see whether any
suspicious changes have been occurring on your hard disk.
                                         If you're confident you
won't acquire any viruses soon, you can erase those CHKLIST.MS
files. Here's how.
                                         Say ``msav'' again at
the C prompt, like this:
C:\>msav
                                         The computer will say
``MicroSoft Anti-Virus'' and ``Main Menu''. To delete all the
CHKLIST.MS files, press the F7 key, then ENTER, then X, then
ENTER again.
                                         Other drives To make the
computer check whether drive A contains any viruses, say ``msav
a:'', like this:
C:\>msav a:
                                         Check all disks If the
computer ever finds a virus on one of your disks, make the
computer check all your floppy disks and any additional hard
disks you have, since the virus might have spread. If you've been
swapping floppy disks or electronic mail with your friends, tell
those friends you got a virus and to scan their disks too!

               TRICKS
  Amaze your friends! Try these tricks. . . .

       Dir /s (in modern DOS)
  Suppose MARY is a file on your hard disk, but you forget which
folder contains MARY. If your DOS is modern, just say:
C:\>dir mary /s
  The ``/s'' makes the computer search through all folders
(subdirectories). The computer will tell you which folders
contain MARY.

         /? (in modern DOS)
  Modern DOS lets you put ``/?'' at the end of any command. That
makes your screen show a short reminder of how to use the command
and its switches.
  For example, if you say ``dir /?'', your screen will show a
short reminder of how to use the ``dir'' command and how to use
``dir'' switches (such as /p, /w, /o, /od, /os, /oe, /oen, /l,
/b, /ah, /ad, and /s).

        Help (in modern DOS)
  Modern DOS understands your cries for help.
  DOS 5 If you say ``help'', DOS 5 prints on your screen an
alphabetical list of all DOS commands and explains briefly what
each command means.
  (You see the first part of that list. Press ENTER to continue
and see the next part. To see the list on paper instead, say
``help>prn''.)
  DOS 6 & 6.2 If you say ``help'', DOS 6 & 6.2 print on your
screen an alphabetical list of all DOS commands.
  (You see the top part of the list. To see the list's bottom,
depress the down-arrow key awhile, or press the PAGE DOWN key
twice. To see the top of the list again, press the PAGE UP key
twice.)
  The commands are arranged in three columns.
  For details about a particular command (such as ``dir''), move
the blinking cursor to that command by using the down-arrow key,
up-arrow key, PAGE DOWN key, PAGE UP key, or TAB key. (The TAB
key moves from column to column.) When the cursor's reached that
command, press ENTER.
  You'll see details about the command's syntax (vocabulary and
grammar). If the details are too long to fit on the screen, see
the rest of them by pressing the PAGE DOWN key several times. If
you want to print all the details on paper, tap the Alt key then
F then P then ENTER.
  When you finish examining the command's syntax, do this: while
holding down the Alt key, tap the N key (which means ``Next
topic''). That gives you the next topic (the command's notes, or
examples of how to use the command, or another command). To go
back to the previous topic, do this: while holding down the Alt
key, tap the B key (which means ``Back'').
  When you finish using the help system, tap the Alt key, then F,
then X.
                                             Undelete (in modern DOS)
                                         Suppose you accidentally
delete some important files. If your DOS is modern, you can get
the files back!
                                         That's because when you
say to delete a file, the file does not vanish. Instead, the file
stays on the disk, but the filename's first letter is replaced by
a symbol indicating you no longer need the file. That old file
stays on the disk until newer files need to use that part of the
disk. Then the old file gets covered up by the newer files.
                                         Here's how to try
getting that old, deleted file back. (This method works only if
you haven't created newer files that use the same part of the
disk.)
                                         First, go to the drive
and subdirectory where the deleted files were. For example, if
the files were in drive A, make the computer say:
A:\>
If the files were in the hard drive's SARAH folder, make the
computer say:
C:\SARAH>
                                         Then say ``undelete''.
(If the computer says ``Bad command or filename'', the computer
can't find the UNDELETE.EXE file that defines the word
``undelete''.)
                                         The computer will search
on the disk for files you recently said to delete. (If the
computer says ``No entries found'', you're probably in the wrong
drive or wrong folder, or the files can no longer be undeleted.)
                                         When the computer finds
a recently deleted file, it will print the file's name, except
that the first letter will be replaced by a question mark. For
example, if the file's name was MARY, the computer will say
``?ARY''. Then the computer will ask, ``Undelete?'' If you really
want to undelete MARY, press Y; otherwise, press N. If you press
Y, the computer will say, ``Please type the first character for
?ARY''. Since the first character of MARY is M, press M.
                                         The computer will do
that procedure for each deleted file. Afterwards, to prove the
files have been undeleted, say ``dir''.

                                                   Remark (rem)
                                         When the computer obeys
your CONFIG.SYS file or a batch file (such as AUTOEXEC.BAT), the
computer ignores any line that begins with the word ``rem''.
                                         For example, suppose
your AUTOEXEC.BAT file contains a line saying ``Lh share /L:500
/f:5100'', and you're debating whether to omit that line. Just
insert ``rem'' at its beginning, so it becomes ``rem Lh share
/L:500 /f:5100'', which makes the computer ignore the line. Then
reboot the computer and see whether you like what happens. If you
don't like what happens, edit that line again and remove the
``rem''. Inserting and removing the ``rem'' is quicker than
deleting and retyping the entire line.
                                         The word ``rem'' means
``remark''. When the computer encounters a line that begins with
the word ``rem'', the computer assumes the line is just a
``remark'' you're mumbling to yourself, so the computer ignores
the line.
                                         The line beginning with
``rem'' can be a command you want to deactivate (such as ``rem Lh
share /L:500 /f:5100'') or a remark you want to make to humans
(such as ``rem this batch file was written by Joey when drunk''
or ``rem the next three lines were written by Microsoft to
control the mouse'').
                More
  Suppose your disk contains a poem called MARY. To see that poem
on your screen, the usual method is to say ``type mary''. But if
MARY contains more than 23 lines, it won't all fit on the screen.
  One way to see the long poem is to say ``type mary'' and then
keep hitting the PAUSE key (to see a piece of the poem at a
time).
  An easier way to see the poem is to say ``more<mary''. That
resembles ``type mary'' but makes the computer automatically
pause at the end of each screenful. (To make the computer
continue to the next screenful, press ENTER.)
  The command ``more<mary'' is pronounced, ``more from mary''.
When typing that command, make sure you type ``<'', which means
``from''. Do not type ``>''.

       Subst (in DOS 3.1 & up)
  Here's a nifty trick. Into drive B, put a disk that contains
some files. Then say:
C:\>subst a: b:\
Afterwards, whenever you talk about drive A, the computer will
SUBSTitute drive B instead. For example, if you say ``dir a:'',
the computer will give you a directory of drive B.
  That command is useful in the following situation. . . .Suppose
drive A is 5¼-inch and drive B is 3½-inch. In that situation, you
should buy programs on 5¼-inch floppies rather than 3½-inch,
because most programs and their manuals assume you're inserting
the floppies into drive A. But suppose you make the mistake of
buying a program on a 3½-inch floppy instead.
  If you insert that floppy into drive B, and the program gripes
at you because it insists you put the floppy into drive A, just
say ``subst a: b:\'', and try again to run the program. When the
program checks to make sure you put the floppy into drive A, the
program will think you obeyed, because the drive you put the
floppy in is now called ``drive A''.
  When you finish using the ``subst a:'' command and want to turn
your computer back to normal, delete the ``subst a:'' command by
saying:
C:\>subst a: /d

               DO.BAT
  To organize the files on your hard disk, you can use many
methods. My favorite is the ``DO.BAT'' method, which I invented.
Here it is. . . .
  How to create DO.BAT Put a file called ``DO.BAT'' into your DOS
directory, by typing:
C:\>copy con dos\do.bat
@echo off
cd \%1
%1
cd \
dir /ad/o/w/L
  If your DOS is earlier than version 3.3, change the ``@echo
off'' to this:
echo off
cls
In classic DOS, change the ``dir /ad/o/w/L'' to this:
dir *. /w
  When you've finished typing, press F6 and ENTER.
  What DO.BAT accomplishes That ``DO.BAT'' file defines the word
``do'' so that if you ever type a command
such as ``do music'', the computer will automatically go into the
MUSIC folder (``cd \%1''), run the MUSIC program (``%1''), return
to the root directory (``cd \''), and print a menu of all the
disk's folders (``dir /ad/o/w/L'', which means ``directory of all
directories, in alphabetical order, displayed wide across the
screen, in Lowercase letters'').
                                         If you type ``do
poker'', the computer will automatically go into the POKER folder
(``cd \%1''), run the POKER program (``%/1''), return to the root
directory (``cd \''), and print a menu of all the disk's folders
again (``dir /ad/o/w/L'').
                                         If you type just the
word ``do'', the computer will just return you to the root
directory (``cd \'') and print a menu of all the disk's folders
(``dir /ad/o/w/L'').
                                         So here are the rules:
Whenever you get confused, just type the word ``do''. It makes
the computer return to the root directory and also display a menu
of all the disk's folders.

To run a program, just say ``do'' followed by the program's name.
For example, to run the MUSIC program, just say ``do music''.
That automatically makes the computer go into the MUSIC folder,
run the MUSIC program, then return to the root directory and
display the menu of all the disk's folders again.
                                         Name each folder the
same as its main file To let the DO.BAT program accomplish all
that, you must set up your software properly. Here's how.
                                         For each major program
you buy, create a folder.
                                         For example, suppose you
buy a program called Marvelous Music, which comes on a pile of
floppies. You should create a folder for Marvelous Music. Here's
how.
                                         First, find out the name
of Marvelous Music's main file. You can do that by reading the
Marvelous Music instruction manual. For example, if the
instruction manual says, ``to start the program, type the word
MUSIC'', then the name of Marvelous Music's main file is MUSIC.
                                         Another way to find the
name of Marvelous Music's main file is to put Marvelous Music's
main disk into drive A and examine its directory (by typing ``dir
a:''). If the directory shows a file ending in .EXE or .COM, that
file's probably the main file. If the directory shows a file
called AUTOEXEC.BAT, peek at what the AUTOEXEC.BAT file says (by
saying ``type a:autoexec.bat''); it probably mentions the main
file.
                                         Suppose you've
discovered the main file's name is MUSIC (or MUSIC.EXE or
MUSIC.COM). Then make a MUSIC folder on the hard disk by typing
``md music'', so your screen looks like this:
C:\>md music
                                         Next, put a Marvelous
Music floppy into drive A. Copy all its files onto your hard
disk's MUSIC folder by typing ``copy a:*.* music'', so your
screen looks like this:
C:\>copy a:*.* music
Put another Marvelous Music floppy into drive A, and say ``copy
a:*.* music'' again. Do the same for each floppy, until the
entire set of Marvelous Music floppies has been copied to the
hard disk's MUSIC folder.
                                         Repeat that procedure
for each application program you bought.
                                         (Exception: some
programs require you to say ``install'' or ``setup'' instead of a
copy command. To find out whether to say ``install'' or
``setup'', read the manual that comes with the program. During
the ``install'' or ``setup'' procedure, when the computer asks
you to name the folder [subdirectory], name it the same as the
main file that will be in it.)
  Try it! To test whether you created the folders correctly, try
using DO.BAT. Here's how.
  Say ``do''. If DO.BAT is working correctly, saying ``do'' will
make the computer display a list of all your folders. For
example, if you created a MUSIC folder and a POKER folder, the
computer will print a list that includes ``MUSIC'' and ``POKER''.
  To use MUSIC, say ``do music''. Then the computer will obey the
DO.BAT file, automatically switch to the MUSIC folder, run the
MUSIC program, and ___ when the MUSIC program finishes ___
automatically return to the root directory and print a menu of
all folders, so you can choose which other application to run
next.
  AUTOEXEC.BAT If you wish, put an extra line at the bottom of
your AUTOEXEC.BAT file, and make that line say just ``do''.
  Then when you turn on the computer, the computer will
automatically perform ``do'', so it will automatically display a
list of all your folders. That list acts as a menu. For example,
to choose MUSIC from that menu, say just ``do music''; that makes
the computer do the MUSIC program and then show you the menu
again.
  Windows The DO.BAT program manages just non-Windows programs.
If you're using mainly Windows programs, don't bother creating
DO.BAT and don't bother putting ``do'' at the bottom of your
AUTOEXEC.BAT file.

               COPY & PROTECT WELL
                             Here's how to copy and protect the
files you love.

                                       Msbackup (in DOS 6 & 6.2)
                             Eventually, some files will get
accidentally erased from your hard disk, because you give the
wrong command or your disk needs repair. To protect against that
inevitable calamity, copy all your hard disk's important files
onto floppy disks. Doing that is called ``backing up your hard
disk onto floppies''. The copies (on the floppies) are called
backups.
                             The niftiest way to back up your
hard disk is to give the``msbackup'' command. To give that
command, you must buy DOS 6 or 6.2.
                             (If your DOS is earlier than 6.2,
skip ahead to the next section, which explains how to give the
old ``backup'' command instead.)
                             How to back up To back up your hard
disk by giving the ``msbackup'' command, just say ``msbackup'' at
the C prompt, like this:
C:\>msbackup
                             If you're lucky, the computer will
say ``Microsoft Backup 6.0''. But if your MSBACKUP program was
never used before and was therefore never configured, the
computer will gripe by saying ``Backup requires configuration for
this computer.'' Here's how to respond:
Remove any floppies from your drives. Press ENTER seven times.

When the computer tells you, insert a blank disk into drive A and
press ENTER.
When the computer tells you, insert a second blank disk into
drive A.
The computer will say ``Backup Complete''. Press ENTER.

When the computer tells you, insert the first blank disk back
into drive A and press ENTER.
When the computer tells you, insert the second blank disk back
into drive A.
The computer will say ``Compare Complete''. Press ENTER three
times.

Now your MSBACKUP program is configured, and the computer says
``Microsoft Backup 6.0''.
                             When the computer says ``Microsoft
Backup 6.0'', press ENTER.
                             Near the left edge of the screen,
you'll see this symbol: [-C-]. That represents drive C. If you
also have a drive D, you'll also see the symbol [-D-].
                             Press the down-arrow key once, so
you move to the [-C-], and the [-C-] becomes highlighted (its
background becomes black instead of blue).
                             Now you have three choices:
Choice 1: if you want to back up ALL FILES from drive C (and you
have a gigantic pile of floppies to put those files on), press
the SPACE bar once or twice, until the phrase ``All files''
appears next to the [-C-].

Choice 2: if you want to back up THE SAME LIST OF FILES that you
backed up the previous time, just let the [-C-] keep having the
phrase ``Some files'' next to it.

Choice 3: if you want to back up JUST A FEW FILES from drive C,
press the SPACE bar once or twice, until NO phrase appears next
to the [-C-]. Press ENTER. You'll see a list of drive C's folders
(directories). Press the down-arrow key several times, until a
directory you want to back up is highlighted. In the right-hand
part of the screen, you'll see a list of all files in that
directory.
                             If you want to back up ALL the files
in that directory, press the SPACE bar, so the symbol  appears
next to the directory's name. If you want to back up JUST ONE of
the files in that directory, do this instead: press the
right-arrow key (to move to the right-hand part of the screen),
press the down-arrow key several times (until the file you want
to back up is highlighted), and press the SPACE bar, so a check
mark appears next to the file's name.
                             If you want to back up SEVERAL
directories, put the symbol  in front of each directory's name.
To back up SEVERAL files, put a check mark in front of each
file's name.
                             If you make a mistake and want to
erase a symbol or check mark, just highlight it and then press
the SPACE bar.
                             When you finish putting the symbols
and check marks in front of everything you wish to back up, press
ENTER.
                             After you've finished making one of
those three choices, press S (which means ``Start backup'').
                             Put a blank floppy disk into drive
A. Press ENTER. If the floppy wasn't formatted yet, the computer
will automatically format it. (If the floppy wasn't blank, the
computer will tell you what was on it; press the letter ``O'' to
erase and Overwrite what was on it.)
  The computer will back up all the folders and files you
requested. If they're too long to fit on one floppy, the computer
will tell you to insert extra floppies. If you pause a while
before inserting an extra floppy, you must press ENTER to confirm
that you put it in.
  When the computer has finished, it will say ``Backup
Complete''. Press ENTER, then Q (which means ``Quit'').
  How the backup is named The entire set of floppies you wrote on
is called the backup set.
  The backup set has a name. For example, the backup set is named
``CC60124B'' if the backup set was created by backing up starting
at drive C, ending at drive C, in 1996, on the date 01/24, and
was that date's second backup set (backup #B).
  In that backup set, the first floppy contains a gigantic file
called ``CC60124B.001''. The second floppy contains a gigantic
file called ``CC60124B.002''. The third floppy contains a
gigantic file called ``CC60124B.003''. Each gigantic file is a
combo of several files from the hard disk.
  Restore If you ever want to use the backup set (because your
hard disk has an accident), say this again:
C:\>msbackup
The computer will say ``Microsoft Backup 6.0'' again. Press the R
key (which means ``Restore'').
  The computer remembers the names of all the backup sets you
ever created and assumes you want to use the most recent set. For
example, if your most recent backup set was named ``CC60124B'',
the computer says:
Backup Set Catalog:
CC60124B.FUL
  (If you want to use an older backup set instead, press ENTER.
You'll see a list of all the sets you ever created. Press the
down-arrow key until the set you want to use is highlighted, then
press the SPACE bar, so a check mark appears next to the set you
want. Press ENTER.)
  Then press the down-arrow key twice, so the [-C-] is
highlighted.
  You have two choices:
Choice 1: if you want to copy ALL THE BACKUP SET'S FILES to drive
C, press the SPACE bar, so the phrase ``All files'' appears next
to the [-C-]. Then press the TAB key.

Choice 2: if you want to copy JUST ONE FILE to drive C, press the
ENTER key. You'll see a list of drive C's directories. Press the
down-arrow key several times, until the directory you're
interested in is highlighted. Then press the right-arrow key.
Press the down-arrow key several times, until the file you're
interested in is highlighted. Press the SPACE bar, so a check
mark appears next to the file's name. Press the ENTER key.
  After you've finished making one of those two choices, press S
(which means ``Start restore'').
  Put the backup set's first floppy in drive A. Press ENTER. When
the computer tells you, put remaining floppies in drive A.
  When the computer has finished, it will say ``Restore
Complete''. Press ENTER, then Q (which means ``Quit'').

    Backup (in early DOS versions) & restore
  The ``msbackup'' command requires DOS 6 or 6.2. If your DOS is
earlier than DOS 6, use the ``backup'' and ``restore'' commands
instead. Here's how.
  (If you're using DOS 6 or 6.2, skip ahead to the next section,
entitled ``Copy instead of backup''.)
  Backup First, grab a pile of floppies. Make sure each floppy is
blank, formatted, and the right size to fit in drive A.
  How much of the hard disk do you want to back up? The whole
hard disk? Or just part of the hard disk? Just one folder? Just
one file? Decide.
  Then give one of these commands:
What you want to back up        Command
a file named MARY in the root directoryC:\>backup c:mary a:
all files in the root directory C:\>backup c: a:
the entire hard disk (all files in root directory and in all
folders)                        C:\>backup c: a: /s

all files in the SARAH folder   C:\>backup c:sarah a:
all files in the SARAH folder or in folders that are in
SARAHC:\>backup c:sarah a: /s
a file named MARY in the SARAH folderC:\>backup c:sarah\mary a:

                                                     Then the
computer will tell you to put a floppy into drive A. (The
computer will also remind you that the floppy should be blank ___
and if the floppy is not blank, the computer will erase whatever
was on it.) Go ahead: put a formatted floppy into drive A. Then
press ENTER.
                                                     The computer
will copy from the hard disk to that floppy disk. If that floppy
disk becomes full, the computer will tell you to insert a second
floppy disk. Put the second floppy into drive A, then press
ENTER. The computer will tell you to insert a third floppy,
fourth floppy, etc., until the copying is finished.
                                                     When the
whole process is finished, what's on those floppies?
                                                     If your DOS
is new (version 3.3, 4, or 5), the first floppy contains a pair
of files called BACKUP.001 and CONTROL.001; the second floppy
contains a pair of files called BACKUP.002 and CONTROL.002; the
third floppy contains a pair of files called BACKUP.003 and
CONTROL.003, etc. Those BACKUP and CONTROL files contain, in
code, the backup copies of your hard disk's files.
                                                     If your DOS
is earlier, the computer uses a more primitive system: the first
floppy contains a file called ``BACKUPID.@@@'', plus many little
backup files. For example, if you backed up a poem called MARY
that was in the SARAH folder, one of the little backup files is
called MARY; it contains the same info as the original poem but
also contains an extra line saying ``\SARAH\MARY'', to remind the
computer which folder the file came from.
                                                     Restore If
you ever want to use those backup copies (because your hard disk
has an accident), say:
C:\>restore a: c: /s
That makes the computer copy all files from the floppy pile back
to the hard disk. If you want to copy just one of the files from
the floppy pile (such as MARY in the SARAH folder), say:
C:\>restore a: c:sarah\mary
                                                     Notice that
``restore'' is the opposite of ``backup''. Use ``backup'' to copy
from the hard disk to a pile of floppies; use ``restore'' to copy
from a pile of floppies to the hard disk.
  The ``restore'' command puts back on the hard disk exactly what
was there before the accident. On your hard disk, the ``restore''
command recreates destroyed files and destroyed folders. For
example, if an accident totally destroyed your hard disk's SARAH
directory, so that the name ``SARAH'' is no longer on the hard
disk, don't worry: if you backed up the hard disk before the
accident, the ``restore'' command will automatically create a
folder on your hard disk, and name that folder ``SARAH'', and put
back in it all the files that were destroyed.
  Since new versions of DOS handle the ``backup'' and ``restore''
commands differently than old versions, make sure you use the
same DOS version for ``restore'' as you used for ``backup''.
  Make backups small Suppose you back up your entire hard disk
onto a gigantic pile of floppies (by saying ``C:\>backup c: a:
/s''). Suppose the first floppy in that pile gets a scratch on
it. Later, when you try to say ``restore'', the computer notices
the scratch on the first floppy, gripes at you, and refuses to
restore. The entire pile of floppies has become useless, because
of one scratch!
  To avoid losing a whole pile of floppies from one scratch, make
smaller piles instead: back up just one subdirectory at a time,
so that each subdirectory gets its own pile of floppies. That
way, if a floppy gets a scratch, you lose just one subdirectory
instead of the whole hard disk.
  Formatting during backup Before giving the backup command,
you're supposed to have a pile of blank disks that have been
formatted. What if one of the disks hasn't been formatted yet?
  If your DOS is modern, the backup command will format the disk
for you. If your DOS is 3.2 or earlier, the computer will gripe
about the unformatted disk. If your DOS is 3.3 or 4, the computer
will gripe unless you said ``/f'' at the end of the backup
command; the ``/f'' tells the computer to format any unformatted
disks.
  Modified files If you say ``/m'' at the end of the backup
command, the computer will back up just the files that ``need to
be backed up''. Those are the files that have been edited or
created since the last time you said ``backup''.
  The backup you create by saying ``/m'' is called the ``backup
of modified files''. It's also called an incremental backup,
since it consists of just the added files that weren't backed up
before.

       Copy instead of backup
  If the group of files you want to back up is short enough so
that the entire group fits on a single floppy, say ``copy''
instead of ``backup'' or ``msbackup'', since the ``copy'' command
is easier and more reliable.
  If the group of files you want to back up is too long to fit on
a single floppy, but you're too rushed to wait for the ``backup''
or ``msbackup'' command to handle a huge pile of floppies, try
this trick: instead of telling the computer to ``backup'' to
floppies, tell the computer to ``copy'' to a hard disk folder
named BACKUP. Here are the details. . . .
  If your hard disk doesn't contain a BACKUP folder already, make
a BACKUP folder by saying:
C:\>md backup
Then to back up all the files in the SARAH folder, just tell the
computer to copy SARAH's files to the BACKUP folder by saying:
C:\>copy sarah backup
                                         That scheme works just
if your hard disk is big enough to hold the BACKUP folder. If you
use that scheme, you should still back up your work onto floppies
occasionally, in case the entire hard drive breaks and you lose
both SARAH and the BACKUP folder.
                                         I recommand that you
copy all important files to the BACKUP folder once a day, and
back up all important files onto floppies once a week.

                                                      Be wary
                                         Never trust a computer!
Even if you copied up your data to a BACKUP folder and floppies,
the data you backed up might be wrong, and all those copies might
be equally defective! To be safer, use these tricks. . . .
                                         Alternate between TWO
piles of floppies. The first time you copy onto floppies, use the
first pile. The second time you copy (the next day or week), use
the second pile instead. The next time you copy, use the first
pile again. The next time, use the second pile. The next time, go
back to the first pile. Keep alternating! That way, if
something's wrong with the data on today's pile, you can go back
to the other pile. Nervous institutions (such as banks and the
military) have seven piles ___ one for each day of the week. That
way, if Friday's data is wrong ___ and so is the data for
Thursday, Wednesday, Tuesday, Monday, and Sunday ___ you can at
least go back to the good data you had last Saturday!
                                         Copy your work onto
paper periodically, and keep the paper copies for several weeks.
The nice thing about paper is: you can see what's on it. You
don't have to worry about the paper being secretly defective.
When dealing with data, paper's the only medium you can trust.
Just don't leave it near your dog. Lock it in your filing
cabinet. (I mean the paper, not the dog.)

                                              Where to put data files
                                         A hard disk contains
programs and data files. In a typical business, the info in the
data files changes daily, but the programs remain stable. The
business makes backup copies of programs monthly but backs up
data files daily, to ensure the backups incorporate the latest
changes.
                                         To back up data files
simply, some businesses put them all in a DATA folder
(directory), backed up daily.
                                         Sharing the disk If
several employees share a hard disk, they might accidentally
destroy each other's data files. To prevent that, your business
can give each employee a separate folder (directory). For
example, you can put all of Fred's data files in a folder called
FRED and put Mary's data files in folder MARY.
                                         An even surer way to
prevent employees from destroying each other's data files is to
give each employee a floppy disk. Fred gets a floppy labeled
``Fred's data''; Mary gets a floppy labeled ``Mary's data''. No
data files are stored on the hard disk, which contains just
programs. But employees dislike using floppies, which are slower
than hard disks and can't handle long files.
                                         Recommendation I
recommend keeping things simple by creating as few folders as
possible. Put the MUSIC program and all its data files in the
MUSIC folder. To distinguish Fred's music from Mary's, have Fred
begin his filenames with an F, and have Mary's begin with M. Let
Fred be responsible for backing up his own files, and Mary be
responsible for backing up hers.
       Attrib (in DOS 3 & up)
  To protect your important files from being erased accidentally,
make backup copies of the files (by saying ``backup'' or
``msbackup'' or ``copy'' or ``diskcopy'').
  Another way to protect the files is to give the ``attrib''
command. To use it, your DOS must be new (version 3 or newer).
  Here's how.
  Read only To protect a file named MARY, say ``attrib +r mary''.
That prevents MARY from being accidentally changed.
  For example, if somebody tries to delete MARY by saying ``del
mary'', the computer will refuse and say:
Access denied
  If somebody tries to delete many files by saying ``del *.*'',
the computer will delete most files but not MARY.
  If somebody tries to create a new MARY and obliterate the old
one (by saying ``copy con mary'', then typing some lines, then
pressing F6 and ENTER), the computer will refuse and say:
Access denied - MARY
  If somebody tries to edit MARY by saying ``edit mary'', the
computer will refuse and say:
Path/file access error
  If somebody tries to edit MARY by saying ``edlin mary'', the
computer will refuse and say:
File is READ-ONLY
  If somebody tries to find out what MARY is (by saying ``dir
mary'' or ``type mary'' or ``copy mary prn'') or rename MARY (by
saying ``rename mary lambchop''), the computer will obey. The
computer will let people read MARY but not destroy what's in
MARY. That's because saying ``attrib +r mary'' means, ``give MARY
the following ATTRIBute: Read only!''
  MARY will remain read-only forever ___ or until you cancel the
``attribute read-only''. To cancel, say ``attrib -r mary''. In
that command, the ``-r'' means ``take away the read-only
attribute'', so that MARY is not read-only and can be edited.
  Hide (in modern DOS) For a different way to protect MARY, say
``attrib +h mary''. That hides MARY, so that MARY will not be
mentioned when you type ``dir''.
  After you've hidden MARY, it will not be affected by any
``del'', ``rename'' or ``copy''. If you try to wreck MARY by
copying another file to it, the computer will say ``Access
denied''. If you try to change MARY's attributes by saying
``attrib +r mary'' or ``attrib -r mary'', the computer will
refuse and say ``Not resetting hidden file''.
  Although MARY is hidden and isn't mentioned when you say
``dir'', the computer will let you access that file if you're
somehow in on the secret and know that the file exists and is
called ``MARY''. For example, the computer will let you look at
the file by saying ``type mary'' and edit the file by saying
``edit mary'' or ``edlin mary''. If you say ``edlin mary''
(because your DOS is too old to understand ``edit''), be careful:
after the editing is done, the new MARY will be visible unless
you say  ``attrib +h mary'' again.
  If MARY is hidden, you can ``unhide'' MARY (and make MARY
visible again) by saying ``attrib -h mary''.
                                         System (in DOS modern)
For an alternate way to hide MARY, say ``attrib +s mary''. That
turns MARY into a system file, which is similar to being hidden.
                                         For the ultimate in
hiding, say ``attrib +h +s mary''. Then even if somebody tries to
unhide MARY by saying ``attrib -h mary'', MARY will still be
hidden by the +s.
                                         To undo the +s, say
``attrib -s mary''.
                                         Archive (in DOS 3.2,
3.3, 4, and modern DOS) If you say ``/m'' at the end of the
``backup'' command, the computer backs up just the files that
have been ``modified''. Files that have been modified (and
therefore should be backed up) are called archive files.
                                         To turn MARY into an
archive file (so that MARY will be backed up by the ``backup''
command with ``/m''), say ``attrib +a mary''.
                                         To prevent MARY from
being backed up by the ``backup'' command with ``/m'', say
``attrib -a mary''.
                                         Normal After playing
with MARY's attributes, you can make MARY be normal again by
saying ``attrib -r -h -s +a mary''. That makes MARY be not
read-only, not hidden, not a system file, and able to be backed
up by the ``backup'' command with ``/m''.
                                         Examine the attributes
To examine MARY's attributes, say ``attrib mary''. The computer
will say ``MARY'' and print some letters. For example, if it
prints the letters R, H, S, and A, it means MARY is read-only,
hidden, system, and archive. If it prints just the letters R and
H, it means MARY is read-only and hidden but not system or
archive.
                                         If you say just
``attrib'' (without mentioning MARY), the computer will print a
directory that tells you the attributes of every file.
       Xcopy (in DOS 3.2 & up)
  Instead of saying ``copy'', try saying ``xcopy'', which means:
eXtended copy. The ``xcopy'' command resembles ``copy'' but has
eXtended abilities, so it can perform fancier tricks.
  To use ``xcopy'', your DOS must be version 3.2, 3.3, 4, or
modern. Since ``xcopy'' is an external command (defined by
XCOPY.EXE), it works just if your computer is set up correctly
and can find the XCOPY.EXE file.
  Here are examples of using ``xcopy''. . . .
  Duplicating a floppy Suppose drive A contains a 5¼-inch floppy
full of info, drive B contains a blank formatted 3½-inch floppy,
and you want to copy all files from drive A to drive B.
  Since the drives are different sizes, you can't say ``diskcopy
a: b:''. You can say ``copy a:*.* b:''; but that copies just the
files in the root directory, not the folders.
  To copy all files ___ even the files that are in folders ___
say ``xcopy a: b: /s''. The ``/s'' makes sure that the copying
includes all folders (subdirectories) that contain files.
  In modern DOS, that command copies all files except hidden and
system files (such as IO.SYS and MSDOS.SYS). Classic DOS copies
even those files.
  That command doesn't bother copying folders that are empty. To
copy all folders, even the ones that are empty, say ``xcopy a: b:
/s/e''.
  Copying a floppy to the hard disk Suppose drive A contains a
floppy full of info. Here's how to create a folder called SARAH
on your hard disk and make it contain everything that was on the
floppy (all the floppy's files and folders):
C:\>xcopy a: sarah\ /s/e
  In that command, the backslash after ``sarah'' makes the
computer create a folder named SARAH if it doesn't exist already.
(By typing that backslash, you don't have to bother saying ``md
sarah''.)
  The ``/s/e'' makes the computer copy everything from the floppy
___ even the floppy's folders. If you omit the ``/s/e'', the
computer will copy just the files in the floppy's root directory.
  Duplicating a folder Suppose your hard disk contains a folder
called SARAH. Here's how to make a copy called SARAH2 (so that
your hard disk will contain both SARAH and SARAH2):
C:\>xcopy sarah sarah2\ /s/e
  In that command, the backslash after ``sarah2'' makes the
computer create a folder named SARAH2 if it doesn't exist
already. The ``/s/e'' makes the computer copy everything from
SARAH ___ even folders that are in the SARAH folder.
  Renaming a folder Suppose your hard disk contains a folder
called SARAH, and you want to change its name to TONY. The
computer won't let you say ``rename sarah tony''. Instead, create
a copy of SARAH called TONY (by saying ``xcopy sarah tony\
/s/e''), then remove SARAH (by saying ``rd sarah'' after deleting
all of SARAH's files).
                                         Copying a folder to a
floppy Suppose your hard disk contains a folder named SARAH, and
you want to copy all SARAH's files to a floppy in drive A.
                                         To keep things simple,
let's assume SARAH does not have any folders hiding inside it, or
you don't wish to copy any such folders. Since this is a simple
copying job, you can probably use the simple ``copy'' command
instead of ``xcopy'' and just say:
C:\>copy sarah a:
                                         But suppose you run into
this hassle: the floppy's too small to hold all SARAH's files.
Then you must copy SARAH's files to a pile of floppies. One way
to do that is to say:
C:\>backup sarah a:
But that fills the floppies with files that are useless until you
say ``restore''.
                                         To copy SARAH's files to
a pile of floppies, try the following trick instead. This trick
works if each file in SARAH is brief (so that no single file is
too long to fit on a floppy).
                                         Say:
C:\>attrib +a sarah\*.*
Then insert the first formatted floppy and say:
C:\>xcopy sarah a: /m
                                         The computer will copy
some files from SARAH to the floppy. When that floppy gets full,
the computer will say ``Insufficient disk space'' and stop
copying.
                                         Then insert the second
floppy. Say ``xcopy sarah a: /m'' again (by retyping it or by
pressing the F3 key or the up-arrow key). Press the ENTER key at
the end of that command. The computer will continue where it left
off: it will copy different files onto that second floppy.
                                         When the computer says
``Insufficient disk space'' again, insert the third floppy, and
say ``xcopy sarah a: /m'' again (and press ENTER). Keep inserting
floppies and saying ``xcopy sarah a: /m'', until the computer is
done and no longer says ``Insufficient disk space''.